Psychopathology Flashcards
Statistical deviation
This says that abnormal behaviours are those that are extremely rare - ie. behaviours found in few people.
Based on statistics- the amount of times we observe it.
Eg. Average IQ is 100; Ranges 85-115; only 2% score below 70 IQ - receive a intellectual disability disorder.
**Evaluation **
P: Real- life application
P: Unusual characteristics can be positive
P: Not everyone unusual benefits from a label
Deviation from social norms
Anyone who deviates from socially created norms (or standards of acceptable behaviour) is considered abnormal.
Eg:. Impolite people- are behaving in a social deviant way because others find it difficult to interact with them; Anti-social personality disorder- people impulsive, aggressive and irresponsible- don’t conform to our moral standards;
Evaluation
P: Change over time e.g. Homosexuality
P: Culturally relative
Failure to function adequately
A person is failing to function adequately if they cannot cope with everyday life. The behaviour causes the individual and/ or others distress. Unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition/hygiene. Can’t hold down a job.
Eg:. Intellectual disability disorder- low IQ + not being able to cope- only then would they receive a diagnosis; Schizophrenia- distressing to individual and others when they experience hallucinations/delusions;
Evaluation
P: Some abnormal behaviours are functional such as depression + attention
P: Takes into account the patient’s perspective
P: Subjective judgement made by a clinician as to amount of distress someone is feeling
Deviation form ideal mental health
When someone does not meet the criteria for good mental health. Jahoda- 6 characteristics. If we are rational, if we can cope with stress, if we can self-actualise.
Eg:. Depression
Evaluation
P: Jahoda’s criteria is unrealistic- suggests we are all abnormal to a degree
P: Culturally relative as based on Western ideas of mental health - can’t apply to non-Western cultures
Phobias
A phobia is an anxiety disorder, which interferes with daily living.
It’s an instance of irrational fear that produces a conscious avoidance of the feared object or situation.
Symptoms of phobias
Symptoms must be consistent for 6 months long.
- According to DSM-V**
- Marked and persistente fear of a specific object or situation;
- Exposure to phobic stimulus nearly always procedures a rapid anxiety response;
- Fear of phobic object or situation is excessive;
- The phobic stimulus is either avoided or responded with great anxiety;
- The phobic reactions interfere significantly with the individual’s working or social life, or he/she is very distressed about the phobia;
Phobias characteristics
How do you ……… about the feared object?
FEEL
BEHAVE
THINK
The Behavioural Approach to explaining Phobias
There are 2 process model - Mowrer
• Initiation - Classic Conditioning - what association do we form to produce phobia?
• Maintenance - Operant Conditioning - How is this maintained through reinforcement?
Phobias initiation
DANGER (UCS) ——> FEAR (UCR)
When someone has a phobia the learn to associate the fear response with something that isn’t actually harmful.
Eg:.
SPIDERS (NS/CS) ———> FEAR(CR)
Phobias maintenance
They are maintained through Negative Reinforcement - avoiding the fear object means they gain relief from the anxiety. This means they do not challenge their fear and so it’s maintained.
Little Albert study -Phobias
Challenge: Watson created a phobia to little Albert by scaring him every time he saw a rat with loud noises. Therefore, Albert associated the rat to scary feelings which created a phobia to rats.
Study:
Neutral stimulus is the rat and the baby “Little Albert” doesn’t respond. When the loud noise (Unconditional Stimuli) was heard by Little Albert he presented a fear response (Unconditional Response). When the loud noise+ rat were presented together Little Albert presented fear as a response. Therefore, Little Albert associated the rat with the noise. When the rat was presented once again, Little Albert responded with fear.
Behavioural Treatment-Phobias
They aim to:
- Reduce phobic anxiety through the principles of classic conditioning whereby a new response to the phobic stimulus is paired with relaxation instead of anxiety- counter conditioning;
- Reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of operant conditioning whereby there’s no option for avoidance behaviour;
Systematic Desensitisation
Joseph Wolfe (1958)
—> Involves a gradual exposure to the feared stimulus.
—> It works on the principle of Reciprocal Inhibition - you cannot experience anxiety and relaxation at the same time. So if you teach the persons to relax in the presence of the phobic stimulus they can’t experience anxiety at the same time.
1. Learn relaxation techniques (Therapy);
2. Exposure to first part of fear object;
3. Break the fear object down into exposure steps that gradually increase in intensity (Hierarchy of fears);
4. Apply relaxation technique until calm;
5. Gradually increase exposure to bigger parts of fear object applying relaxation techniques in between each step;
Flooding - Phobias
Flooding stops phobic responses very quickly.
Without the option for avoidance behaviour, the patient quickly learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless - this process is called extinction.
A learn response is extinguished when the conditioned stimulus (eg:dog) is encountered without the unconditional stimulus (eg: being bitten).
The result is that the conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response (fear).
Statistical Infrequency
A behaviour that does not occur very often in the general population.
Evaluation
Strength: uses objective standards deviations to define abnormal behaviour reducing likelihood to misinterpret information.
Strength: real life development because it can be used to measure normal and expected development in children.
Weakness: definition of abnormality assumes that any behaviours that is rare is problematic and statistical infrequency suggests that some rare behaviours are desirable.
Intellectual Disability Disorder
A disorder that affects intellectual development and where a person has an IQ of more than 2 standard deviations below their peers.
Below 70IQ.
Normal Distribution
A symmetrical spread of data with a bell shaped curve.
Psychopathology
It’s the study of psychological disorders. For example: depression, phobias, OCD, schizophrenia, eating disorders and aggression.
Schizophrenia
A type of psychosis where the individual loses touch with reality. • Symptoms: - Hallucinations; - Delusions; -Speech difficulties;
Eating Disorders
Abnormal or disturbed eating habits (such as nervosa, bulimia and anorexia). • Symptoms: - Restricting food intake; - Purging behaviour; - Food avoidance;
Aggression
Overt and covert interaction with others, with the intention of causing someone else. • Symptoms: - Anger; - Frustration; - Fear; - Violence; - Impaired thinking;
Culture
Depends on beliefs and values.
Culture refers to the ideas, customs and social behaviours of particular people or society.
• Behaviours that are illegal across various cultures - considering what we regard as normal or abnormal behaviour, research behaviours that are illegal across various cultures.
Time
Depends in the era.
The time during which a behaviour is conducted can also alter our perception of whether it’s normal or abnormal.
^ Laws and legislations have changed over time in the Uk.
Considering how this impacts our understanding of what is abnormal behaviour.
Social norms
Expectation that a society or culture may have about how to behave. Implicit rules about how to and how not to behave in society.
For example, when you go to the shops you are expected to wait in an orderly queue until it’s your turn to be served.
Cultural Norms
As with social norms in societies, cultural beliefs and norms also influence our expectations of behaviour.
Eg:.
In UK people prefer 100cm for personal distance whilst in Argentina people rather less.
Context
Depends on the situation
6 criteria (characteristics)- deviation from ideal mental health
- Positive attitude towards the self; eg: self-esteem & beliefs
- Self actualisation; eg: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (humanist approach)
- Personal autonomy; eg: independence of thought & behaviour
- Resistance to stress; eg: tolerance to stress
- Environmental mastery; eg: ability to adapt to change
- Accurate perception of reality; eg: the way a person sees the world and environment
Culture bias and Ideal Mental Health
A research or theorist considers their culture to be superior to others (consciously or not). Researchers or theorists impose their cultural ethics (assumptions) onto another culture without adapting to the new culture. Judgements are made about other cultures without taking cultural differences into account.
Ideal mental health
Evaluation
Weakness: too subjective dependent on interpretation
Weakness: unrealistic as people will not be able to reach the 6 criteria.
Strength: supporting recovery for health with the Jahoda 6 criteria.
Rosenhan and seligman - falou-te to function adequately
—> The global assessment of functioning scale (GAF)
How do you mow if someone is failing to cope?
- Unpredictability - impulsive, uncontrollable
- Maladaptive behaviours - going against accepted standards
- Personal distress - excessive e,optional responses
- Irrationality - unreasonable thinking & behaviour
- observer discomfort - causing others to feel comfortable
Depression
It’s a mood disorder.
DSM-V CRITERIA:
- all forms of depression are characterised by changes in mood. There are different levels of severity of depression.
—> Major depressive disorder: severe but often is short-term;
—> Persistent “ “ : long-term or recurring depression, including sustained major depression.
Depression - diagnosis
Appears gradually or suddenly.
Occurs at any age or class.
The sever forms are more common in middle and old age however, it has became a more common in 20s and 30s.
To be diagnosed the a combination of symptoms must be lasting for at least 2 weeks.
Depression - Facts
Can be relatively mild or so intense that the sufferer may be at serious risk of suicide.
It’s estimated that 5% of adults in GB will suffer from it at some point in there lives (SANE, 1993).
The risk of women developing unipolar depression is doubled than men.
Depression - Symptoms
Activity levels - either reduce or does the opposite which is psychomotor agitation. Behavioural
Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour - may decrease but also increase. Behavioural
Aggression and self-harm - become more irritable and aggressive. Behavioural
Lowered mood- feelings of emptiness. Emotional
Anger. Emotional
Lowered self-esteem - reduce. Emotional
Poor concentration - reduce. Cognitive
Negative bias in thinking- focus on negative aspects. Cognitive
Absolutist thinking - black and white thinking. Cognitive
Cognitive Approach
Negative thoughts, irrational beliefs, misinterpretation of events.
* Ellis’ A,B,C Model of Depression explains the way that cognitive, emotional and behaviour are connected. Due that A= activity, B= belief, C= consequences.
- Beck’s Negative Triad conveys that a person with depression is unlikely to recognise that has a illness however the person feels the symptoms even though doesn’t recognise.
Musturbatory Thinking
How could assumptions of irrational thoughts lead to depression?
- The person cathasthrophises every situation without creating a positive belief out of the event, leading to negative behaviours such as suicidal beliefs and self-harm.
Cognitive Behaviour Theory (CBT)
-Rational Emotive Behaviour Theory-
—> Proposed be Ellis (1993)
—> Psychological problems occur as a result of irrational thinking.
—> Faulty beliefs lead to ‘self-defeating’ habits.
REBT helps identify irrational thoughts and use more effective behaviour.
REBT
It aims to dispute irrational beliefs in 3 ways:
- Logical Disputing - Does thinking this makes sense?
- Empirical Disputing - What evidence is there?
- Pragmatic Disputing - How useful is this belief?
*D.E.F. *
Disputing
Effective attitude
Feelings are improved
Between therapy sessions, clients need to be complete ‘homework’- assignments where they put themselves in situations that make them confront their irrational beliefs so they can test them against reality.
Cognitive TRIAD- Depression
Negative view of the self —> Negative view of the future —> Negative view of the world
OCD Cycle
Obessions —> anxiety —> compulsions —> relief 🔁
OCD Symptoms
Persistent intrusive thoughts. Cognitive
Obsessions about particular things. Cognitive
Catastrophising. Cognitive
Repetitive actions. Behavioural
Compulsions that reduce anxiety. Behavioural
Avoiding potential stressors. Behavioural
Anxiety. Emotional
Embarrassment. Emotional
Guilt & Disgust. Emotional
Biological Explanation of OCD
Genetic Explanations: A popular explanation for mental disorders such as OCD. OCD is inherited which means that specific genes are inherited from parents.
COMT Gene
SERT Gene
Diathesis-Stress
COMT Gene- bio explanation of OCD
The COMT Gene: regulates the production of the neurotransmitters dopamine that has been implicated in OCD. Genes are very different (allele). However 1 from COMT gene appears to be common in individuals with OCD.
The variation produces lower activity of COMT gene and higher levels of dopamine (Tuket et. Al,2013).
SERT Gene- bio explanation of OCD
This affects serotonin, creating lower levels of this neurotransmitters. The high levels implicated in OCD. One study found a mutation of this gene in 2 unrelated families where 6 of the 7 family members had OCD (Ozaki (2003).
Diathesis- stress model
The ideia of a simple link between 1 gene and a complex disorder like OCD is unlikely. Genes such as the SERT gene are also implicated in a number of other disorders such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. It suggests that each individual Gene only creates vulnerability (a diathesis) for one condition. Other factors (“stressors”) affect what condition develops or indeed whether any mental illness develops. Therefore, some people could possess the COMT or SERT gene variations but suffer no ill effects.
Neural explanations of OCD
As we have seen there’s a link between genetic factors and abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters. It’s also true that genetic factors affect certain brain circuits that may be abnormal.
Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters.
Abnormal brain circuits.
Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters OCD
Dopamine levels are thought to be abnormally high in people with OCD. This is based on animal studies - high levels does of drugs that enhances levels of dopamine induce stereotyped movements resembling the compulsive behaviours found in OCD patients (Szechtman et al. (1998). In contrast with dopamine p, it’s lower levels of serotonin that are associated with OCD. This conclusion is based on the fact that antidepressant that have less effect on serotonin don’t reduce OCD symptoms (Jenicke, 1992).
Abnormal brain circuit OCD
Genetics can also cause abnormalities in brain structure. In there experiencing OCD several abnormalities have been found in the frontal lobe. Caudate Nucleus (in the Basal Ganglia) usually reduces the signals from the Orbitofrontal Cortex (OFC).
The OFC sends signals to the Thalamus about stimulus it detects as worrying.
Therefore, if the Caudate Nucleus is damaged it fails to suppress these messages and so creates a ‘worry loop’ between the OFC and the Thalamus, sending signals back and forth, PET scans studying brain activity whilst OCD sufferers are experiencing symptoms have shown increased activity in the OFC.
Sum up Biological Explanation OCD
Faulty COMT Gene —> Increase Dopamine —> Malfunction in Basal Ganglia.
Faulty SERT gene —> Reduce Serotonin —> Malfunction the OFC and caudate nucleus.
Biological treatments for OCD
Drug Therapy Basis:
- Drug therapy assumes that there’s a chemical imbalance in the brain. Drugs work by either increasing or decreasing the levels of neurotransmitters at the synapse.
Eg: Selective serotonin reputable inhibitors(SSRI) and tricycliss (anafranil) and benzodiazepines react with GAABA receptors such as Xanax or Valium
