Psychopathology

Question 1

Outline one emotional characteristic of phobias

Answer 1

Excessive fear, anxiety and/or panic cued by a specific object or situation

Question 2

Outline one behavioural characteristic of phobias

Answer 2

Avoidance, faint or freeze, interferes with everyday life

Question 3

Outline one cognitive characteristic of phobias

Answer 3

Not helped by rational argument, unreasonableness of the behaviour recognised

Question 4

Outline one emotional characteristic of depression

Answer 4

Negative emotions - sadness, loss of interest and sometimes anger

Question 5

Outline one behavioural characteristic of depression

Answer 5

Reduced or increased activity related to energy levels, sleep and/or eating

Question 6

Outline one cognitive characteristic of depression

Answer 6

Irrational, negative thoughts and self-beliefs that are self-fulfilling

Question 7

Outline one emotional characteristic of OCD

Answer 7

Anxiety and distress, and awareness that this is excessive, leading to shame

Question 8

Outline one behavioural characteristic of OCD

Answer 8

Compulsions

Compulsive behaviours to reduce obsessive thoughts, not connected in a realistic way

Question 9

Outline one cognitive characteristic of OCD

Answer 9

Recurrent, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts (obsessions), more than everyday worries

Question 10

What does OCD stand for?

Answer 10

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Question 11

State the 4 definitions of abnormality

Answer 11

1) Statistical infrequency
2) Deviation from social norms (DSN)
3) Failure to function adequately (FFA)
4) Deviation from ideal mental health (DIMH)

Question 12

Describe statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality
(3 points)

Answer 12

1) Statistics describe typical values
2) A frequency graph of behaviours tends to show a normal distribution
3) The extreme ends define what is not the norm e.g. abnormal

Question 13

Evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality
(4 points)

Answer 13

1) Some behaviour is desirable - can’t distinguish desirable from undesirable behaviour. Its subjective
2) Cut-off point is subjective - important for deciding who gets treatment
3) Sometimes appropriate - e.g. for intellectual disability defined as two standard deviations below the mean IQ
4) Cultural relativism = statistical frequency is relative to the reference population

Question 14

Describe ‘DSN’ as a definition of abnormality

3 points

Answer 14

1) Norms defined by a group of people (‘society’)
2) Standards of what is acceptable
3) May be implicit or defined by law

Question 15

Evaluate ‘DSN’ as a definition of abnormality

4 points

Answer 15

1) Susceptible to abuse - varies with changing attitudes/morals, can be used to incarcerate those who are non-conformists
2) Related to context and degree - e.g. shouting is normal in some places and in moderation
3) Strength = Distinguishes desirable from undesirable behaviour, and considers effect on others
4) Cultural relativism - social norms of dominant culture used as a basis for DSM, imposed on other cultural groups. Beta bias example

Question 16

Describe ‘FFA’ as a definition of abnormality

3 points

Answer 16

1) Being unable to manage everyday life e.g. eating regularly
2) Lack of functioning is abnormal if it causes distress to self and/or others
3) WHODAS used to provide a quantitative measure of functioning

Question 17

Evaluate ‘FFA’ as a definition of abnormality

4 points

Answer 17

1) Distress may be judged subjectively
2) Behaviour may be functional - e.g. depression may be rewarding for the individual
3) Strengths = recognised subjective experience of individual, can be measured objectively
4) Cultural relativism = Standards of everyday life vary between culture, non-traditional lifestyles may be judges as inadequate

Question 18

What does WHODAS stand for?

Answer 18

World Health Organisation Disability Assessment

Question 19

Describe ‘DIMH’ as a definition of abnormality

1 point

Answer 19

1) Jahoda identified characteristics commonly used when describing competent people

Question 20

Evaluate ‘DIMH’ as a definition of abnormality

4 points

Answer 20

1) Unrealistic criteria - may not be useable because it is too idealistic
2) Equates mental and physical health - whereas mental disorders tend not to have physical causes
3) Positive approach - a general part of the humanistic approach
4) Cultural-bound criteria = e.g. self-actualisation not relevant to collectivist cultures (alpha-bias example)

Question 21

Describe the two process model for explaining phobias

Answer 21

Classical conditioning = Learning through association between the NS and the UCR. This acquires the phobia
Operant conditioning = Learning through negative reinforcement (maintained)

Question 22

State the Classical conditioning formula in relation to the Little Albert study

Answer 22

White rat (NS) --> No response
Loud noise (UCS) --> Fear response (UCR)
Loud noise + White rat (UCS + NS) --> Fear response (UCR)
White rat (CR) --> Fear response (CR)

Question 23

Explain social learning theory

Answer 23

It is not part of the two process model.

The phobic behaviour of others modelled

Question 24

Describe the Watson and Rayner study

Answer 24

1) Watson is known as the father of behaviourism
2) They sought to demonstrate that emotional responses could be learned through classical conditioning
3) In 1920, they used an 11 month old boy called ‘Little Albert’ (His name wasn’t Albert, anonymity)
4) They paired NS of a white rat with a UCS - loud noises. This made the subject scared of furry white objects in general

Question 25

Evaluate the importance of classical conditioning

Answer 25

People with phobias often do recall a specific incident when their phobia appeared, however not everyone who has a phobia can recall such an incident. Sue et al = agoraphobics were most likely to explain their disorder in terms of a specific incident, whereas arachnophobics were most likely to cite modelling as the cause (social learning theory)

Question 26

Evaluate the importance of the diathesis-stress model in-terms-of phobias

Answer 26

Not everyone who is bitten by a dog develops a phobia of dogs (di Nardo et al.), it may depend on having a genetic vulnerability.
Environmental factors + genetic predisposition = Phobias

Question 27

Evaluate the importance of the theory of biological preparedness in terms of phobias

Answer 27

1) Seligman = Phobias more likely with ‘ancient fears’ e.g. snakes and spiders. Conditioning alone can’t explain all phobias
2) Bregman = Wooden blocks study, failed to condition a fear response in infants 8-16 months by pairing a loud bell with wooden blocks

Question 28

Who said that social phobias may respond better to CBT rather than classical conditioning?

Answer 28

Engels et al.

Question 29

State the two treatments for phobias

Answer 29

1) Flooding

2) Systematic de-sensitisation (SD)

Question 30

State and describe the 4 points associated with systematic de-sensitisation (SD)

Answer 30

1) Counterconditioning = Phobic stimulus associated with new response of relaxation
2) Reciprocal inhibition = The relaxation inhibits the anxiety
3) Relaxation = Deep breathing, focus on peaceful scene, progressive muscle relaxation
4) Desensitisation hierarchy = from least to most fearful, relaxation practised at every step

Question 31

Evaluate systematic de-sensitisation as a treatment for phobias

Answer 31

1) Effectiveness = 75% success (McGrath et al.) In vivo techniques may work better or a combination (Comer)
2) Not for all phobias = Works less well for ancient fears (Ohman et al.)
3) Behavioural therapies are fast and require less effort than CBT, can be self-administered

Question 32

State and describe the 3 points associated with Flooding

Answer 32

1) Intense exposure with the phobic stimulus
2) Continues until anxiety subsides and relaxation is complete
3) Can be ‘in vivo’ or ‘in vitro’

Question 33

Evaluate flooding as a treatment for phobias

Answer 33

1) Individual differences = traumatic, and if patients quit, then they have failed the treatment, possibly heightening their phobia
2) Effectiveness = research suggests that it is more effective than SD and quicker (Choy et al.)
3) Can be a better treatment economically, as it is much quicker than SD, and there is a much lower rate of attrition.

Question 34

State the difference between ‘in vivo’ and ‘in vitro’

Answer 34

In vivo = Actual exposure

In vitro = Virtual reality

Question 35

State the two ways of explaining depression and who developed them

Answer 35

1) Ellis = ABC model

2) Beck = Negative triad

Question 36

Describe Ellis’ ABC model of explaining depression

Answer 36

A = Activating event
B = Belief, may be rational or irrational
C = Consequence. Rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions whereas irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions (e.g. depression)
Mustabatory thinking = Thinking that certain ideas or assumptions MUST be true in order for an individual to be happy. E.g. I must do well, or I am worthless. I world must give me happiness, or I will die

Question 37

Describe Beck’s Negative triad as a way of explaining depression

Answer 37

1) Negative schemas lead to cognitive biases - individuals over-generalise, drawing a sweeping conclusion regarding self-worth on the basis of one piece of negative feedback
2) Negative triad = Negative and irrational views of the self, the world and the future

Question 38

Evaluate the cognitive approach to explaining depression

Answer 38

1) ‘Sadder but wiser effect’ = Alloy and Abrahmson, depressed people may be realists
2) Alternative biological explanation = Genes may cause low levels of serotonin, predisposing people to develop depression
3) Recovery may depend on recognising environmental factors - blames the client and ignores environmental factors

Question 39

Describe CBT as a therapy for treating depression

Answer 39

1) Ellis’ ABCDEF model
D = Disputing irrational beliefs via logical empirical and pragmatic means
E & F = Effects of disputing and the feelings that are produced
2) Homework - trying out new behaviours to test irrational beliefs
3) Behavioural activation - encouraging re-engagement with pleasurable activities
4) Unconditional positive regard - Reduces sense of worthlessness (Ellis)

Question 40

Evaluate CBT as a method for treating depression

Answer 40

1) Alternative treatments = Drug therapy is much easier in time and effect, costing less for the economy. A drugs + CBT solution may be best
2) Individual differences = CBT not suitable for those with rigid irrational beliefs, those whose stressors cannot be changed and those who don’t want direct advice
3) Research support = generally successful, Ellis estimated 90% success over 27 sessions. May depend on the competence of the therapist (Kuyken and Tsivrikos)

Question 41

State the three genetic explanations to explaining OCD

Answer 41

1) COMPT gene - one allele more common in OCD, creates high levels of dopamine (Tukel et al.)
2) SERT gene - one allele more common in a family with OCD, creates low levels of serotonin
3) Diathesis-stress - same genes linked to other disorders or no disorder at all, therefore genes create a vulnerability

Question 42

State the four neural explanations to explaining OCD

Answer 42

1) High Dopamine - linked to compulsive behaviours in animal studies (Szechtman et al.)
2) Low Serotonin - antidepressants that increase serotonin most effective (Jenicke)
3) Worry circuit - damaged caudate nucleus doesn’t suppress worry signals from OFC to thalamus
4) Serotonin and dopamine linked to activity in these parts of the frontal lobe (e.g. Sukel)

Question 43

Describe the worry circuit ;)

Answer 43

1) The OFC (orbitofrontal cortex) sends messages to the Thalamus “Should I worry about this?”
2) The cordate nucleus supresses these signals, dampening down the OFC’s signals
3) The Thalamus decides whether the stimuli is big enough to worry about or not.

Question 44

Describe the two implications of having a damaged worry circuit

Answer 44

1) The cordate nucleus is underactive = meaning the thalamus worries too much
2) The OFC is too overactive = meaning the thalamus worries too much
Can be caused by abnormal levels of serotonin in these areas (Comer, 1998)

Question 45

Evaluate the biological explanation to explaining OCD

Answer 45

1) Environmental component = Concordance rates are never 100%, meaning a type of OCD is not inherited
2) Genes are not specific to OCD = also linked to Tourette’s syndrome, anorexia. I.e. obsessive-type behaviour
3) Twin studies = Twice as likely to have OCD if MZ twins (Billett et al)

Question 46

State the five points to treating OCD in a biological sense

Answer 46

1) Antidepressants increase serotonin
2) SSRI’s = prevent re-uptake of serotonin by the pre-synaptic neuron across the synaptic cleft
3) Tricyclics = Block re-uptake of noradrenaline and serotonin, but have more severe side-effects, so are second choice to SSRI’s
4) Anti-anxiety drugs = BZ’s enhance GABA, a neurotransmitter that slows down the nervous system
5) D-Cycloserine = Reduces anxiety (Kushner et al.)

Question 47

Evaluate the biological explanation to treating OCD

Answer 47

1) Effectiveness = SSRI’s are better than the placebo over the short term (Soomro et al)
2) Drug therapies are preferred - less time and effort than CBT, and may benefit from the interaction from a caring doctor. Also lower rates of attrition as it is not a therapy-based treatment
3) Publication bias = more studies with positive results published which may bias doctor preferences (Turner et al.)