Biopsychology Flashcards
Describe the divisions of the human nervous system.
Human nervous system —> Central Nervous system (CNS) & Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
CNS —> Brain & Spinal cord
PNS —> Somatic & Autonomic (ANS)
ANS —> Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
State the two main functions of the CNS
The control of behaviour and the regulation of the body’s physiological processes
State the main function of the spinal cord
To relay information between the brain and the rest of the body
State the four main areas of the brain
1) Cerebrum (cerebral cortex is the outer layer of this)
2) Cerebellum
3) Diencephalon (thalamus & hypothalamus)
4) Brain stem
What are the four lobes of the cerebrum?
1) Frontal lobe
2) Occipital lobe
3) Parietal lobe
4) Temporal lobe
What does the frontal lobe of the cerebrum do?
Thought and the production of speech
What does the occipital lobe of the cerebrum do?
Processing of visual images
What does the cerebellum do?
Motor skills, balance & muscle co-ordinations
What are the two main structures in the diencephalon?
The thalamus and the hypothalamus
What does the thalamus do?
Relay station for nerve impulses coming from the senses, routing them to the appropriate part of the brain where they can be processed
What does the hypothalamus do?
1) Regulation of body temperature, hunger and thirst
2) Acts as the link between the endocrine system and the nervous system, controlling the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
What does the brain stem do?
Regulation of automatic functions e.g. breathing, heartbeat and swallowing.
Motor and sensory neurons travel through the brain stem, allowing impulses to pass between the brain and the spinal cord.
Describe the somatic nervous system (SNS)
The part of the PNS responsible for carrying sensory and motor information to and from the central nervous system
Also involved in reflex actions with the involvement of the CNS
Describe the ANS
Governs the brain’s involuntary activities (e.g. stress, heartbeat) and is self-regulating (i.e. autonomous
it is divided into the sympathetic branch (fight or flight) and parasympathetic branch (rest and digest)
Which neurotransmitter does the sympathetic division of the ANS mainly use?
Noradrenaline - it has stimulating effects
What neurotransmitter does the parasympathetic division of the ANS mainly use?
Acetylcholine - it has inhibiting effects
Describe the sympathetic division of the ANS
It is primarily involved in responses that help us to deal with emergencies such as fight or flight.
It slows down bodily processes that are less important in emergencies, such as digestion and urination - does the opposite of the parasympathetic branch.
Describe the main points of the parasympathetic branch of the ANS
It relaxes the body once an emergency has passed. It slows heartbeat down and reduces blood pressure.
Basically does the opposite to the sympathetic branch of the ANS
What structure joins the two hemispheres of the brain?
The corpus callosum
What does the parietal lobe do?
Processing of sensory information
State the two types of ridges in the brain
Gyrus = Top Sulki = Bottom
Why is extreme cortical folding important?
It allows a large sa:vol ratio to allow for better processing.
Describe/draw the main structures of a neuron
Dendrites = At the end of the neurone
Cell body = Like the cytoplasm of the main end
Soma = The nucleus of the neuron
Myelin sheath = A fatty insulating layer that surrounds the axon
Nodes of ranvier = Gaps in between the myelin sheaths
Axon = the long bit where action potentials travel
Schwann cell = Wrap around the axon, producing the myelin sheath
Axon terminal = The other end of the neuron
State the three types of neurone
1) Sensory
2) Motor
3) Relay
How does the myelin sheath speed up impulses?
The action potential jumps from each node of ranvier to node of ranvier. This is called ‘saltatory conduction’
Describe a synapse
Presynaptic neurone and post synaptic neurone
Synaptic vesicles found in presynaptic terminal button
Synaptic gap/cleft
Acetylcholine and noradrenaline are known as excitatory or inhibitory in their actions?
Excitatory
Neurotransmitters such as serotonin and GABA are known as…
Inhibitory neurotransmitters
What do inhibitory neurotransmitters do?
What do excitatory neurotransmitters do?
Inhibitory = Decrease the likelihood of that neurotransmitter firing. Generally responsible for calming the mind and body, inducing sleep, and filtering out unnecessary exhibitory signals.
Exhibitory = Increase the likelihood of that neurotransmitter firing
What do EPSP and IPSP mean?
EPSP = Excitatory post-synaptic potential IPSP = Inhibitory post-synaptic potential
How do EPSP’s and IPSP’s occur?
An excitatory neurotransmitter binding with a post-synaptic receptor causes an electrical change in the membrane of that cell, resulting in an EPSP, meaning the post-synaptic cell is more likely to fire.
An inhibitory neurotransmitter binding with a post-synaptic receptor result in an IPSP, making it less likely the cell is to fire.
The likelihood of a cell firing is determined by…
The summation of excitatory and inhibitory synaptic input
What are the two ways the strength of an EPSP can be increased?
1) Spatial summation
2) Temporal summation
Describe spatial summation
A large number of EPSP’s are generated at many different synapses on the same post-synaptic neurone at the same time
Describe temporal summation
A large number of EPSP’s are generated at the same synapse by a series of high-frequency action potentials on the pre-synaptic neurone.
Define ‘target cell’
Cells with receptors that ‘unlock’ with a certain hormone
What are the effects of too much cortisol?
Too much cortisol can a to high blood pressure and depression
Which gland is called the ‘master gland’ and why?
The pituitary - because it controls many other endocrine glands
The Pituitary gland is split into two parts, what are these called?
The anterior and posterior lobe
What does the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland release and what do these hormones do?
ACTH = Response to stress, stimulates adrenal cortex
LH and FSH = The menstrual cycle
What does the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secrete and what do these hormones do?
Oxytocin = Comfort & happiness.
ADH = Important in water regulation (osmoregulation)
Also stimulates uterus contraction
What are the two parts of the adrenal gland called?
1) The adrenal cortex
2) The adrenal medulla
What is adrenaline important for?
The ‘fight or flight’ response
What do the ovaries secrete?
Progesterone and oestrogen
What do the testes produce?
Testosterone
What is the HPA axis?
Describes the sequence of bodily activity in response to stress that involves the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal cortex
What is the difference between acute and chronic stressors?
Acute stressors = sudden, like a personal attack
Chronic stressors = ongoing, like a stressful job
Outline the difference between stress and stressors
Stress = A physical or psychological response to a stressor.
Stressors = internal or external factors that bring on stress. They can be acute (short-term) or chronic (ongoing)
Explain the body’s response to short-term, acute stressors.
SNS is triggered –> sends a signal to the adrenal medulla –> responds by secreting adrenaline into the bloodstream.
Explain the body’s response to adrenaline
1) Heart beats faster - blood pressure increases
2) Breathing becomes more rapid to take in more oxygen
3) Blood-glucose levels rise
Explain what the PNS does after the threat has passed?
When the threat has passed, the ANS dampens down the stress response. It slows down the heartbeat and reduces blood pressure. Digestion (inhibited when the SNS is aroused) begins again
State the acronym for the body’s response to acute stressors
Hypothalamus stimulates (ANS) Adrenal medulla which releases Adrenaline Acute = HANSAMA
Explain the body’s response to long-term, chronic stressors.
If the brain continues to perceive something as threatening, the second system kicks in. As the initial surge of adrenaline subsides, the hypothalamus activates a stress response system called the HPA axis. This consists of the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal glands
Describe the HPA axis
H = Hypothalamus releases CRH into the blood
P = CRH causes the
anterior pituitary gland to produce the hormone ACTH
A = ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to release various stress-related hormones, including cortisol
Chronic = HPACC
Is the physiological response to stress the same for males and females?
1) The fight or flight response is much more likely in males, which makes sense from an evolutionary perspective.
2) Taylor et al (2000) = ‘tend and befriend’ response. Women are more likely to protect their offspring (tend) and form alliances with other women (befriend).
3) Could be counterintuitive for women, running could be seen as a weakness and put their offspring at risk, undermining its validity
4) Research only done with males (androcentrism), thought it could be generalised to females. Highlights a beta bias until Taylor et al provided countering evidence.
Is the fight or flight response an incomplete explanation?
Freeze response
1) Critics suggest our reaction is not limited to the fight or flight response, but humans also engage in a ‘freeze’ response
2) Gray (1988) = first response to danger is to freeze, ‘hyper-vigilance’, allows organisms to evaluate the situation to decide the best course of action
3) Face validity, gives an evolutionary advantage
4) Highlights how it could be an oversimplification of the physiological response to stress, reducing its validity
Is the fight or flight response still adaptive in the modern day?
1) May not be appropriate in the modern day
2) Life now rarely requires an intense biological response to a stressful event. The smaller stressors of our modern life repeatedly activate our response systems - negative health impact
3) Continual activation of the SNS can increase their blood pressure causing blood vessel damage. Correlation between cortisol levels and coronary heart disease.
4) The immune system is also compromised during the stress response.
5) Critics cite that the fight or flight response is actually maladaptive
State the definition of localisation of function
The theory that different areas of the brain are responsible for different behaviours, processes and activities
Who was Franz Gall and what did he do?
He pioneered the concept of localised functions by introducing the idea of ‘phrenology’ - a process that involves observing and/or feeling the skull to determine an individuals psychological attributes.
What are the four cortex’s of the brain?
1) Motor cortex
2) Somatosensory cortex
3) (Primary) Visual cortex
4) Auditory cortex
Describe the motor cortex
Controls voluntary movement on the opposite side of the body
At the back (posterior) of the frontal lobe in both hemispheres
has specialised areas which control different parts, e.g. fingers or toes
Describe the somatosensory cortex
Lies at the front of both parietal lobes separated from the motor cortex by the central sulcus (the deep groove that separates the frontal and parietal lobes
Where sensory information from skin is processed, more sensitive areas e.g. fingers have more devoted to it.
Left hemisphere processes right body and vice versa.
Describe the (primary) visual cortex
Found in the occipital lobe
Processing begins in the retina, where light hits photo-receptors at the back of the eyes. The optic nerve transmits the impulse to the thalamus which relays it to the visual cortex for processing
Describe the auditory cortex
Found at the top of the temporal lobe. Processing begins in the inner ear, where sound waves are converted to impulses. The auditory nerve sends the impulse to the auditory cortex (bilaterally) via the brain stem & thalamus
Broca’s area =
Wernicke’s area =
Broca’s area = speech production
Wernicke’s area = speech comprehension
What did ‘Tan’ have problems with?
Producing spoken and written language, he was only able to say ‘Tan’.
What is damage to Broca’s and Wernicke’s area’s called respectively?
Broca’s aphasia & Wernicke’s aphasia
What is the technical term for nonsense words?
Neologisms
Where is Broca and Wernicke’s areas located?
Broca’s area = Left frontal lobe
Wernicke’s area = Left temporal lobe
Describe what happened to Phineas Gage - a case study
1) He was a tamper during the construction of the US railroads
2) A tamping rod shot through his skull but he survived
3) People said “he was no-longer Gage”
4) The first case that suggested the brain plays an important role in a person’s disposition
5) Possible explanation = damage to his frontal lobes impacted on his ability to inhibit emotions & inappropriate impulses
What is the holistic theory of the brain?
All parts of the brain were involved in the processing of all thought and action
Broca and Wernicke argued for the idea of…
It follows the idea that if one part of the brain becomes damaged…
…Cortical specialisation (localisation of function)
…the function associated with that area will be affected only.
What is the neural loop running between Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas called?
The ‘arcuate fasciculus’
Give 1 pro and 2 cons of case-studies in terms of Phineas Gage
PRO’s = 1) Studying a patient like Gage in detail is a unique opportunity. One can investigate a rare case which couldn’t be done otherwise for ethical reasons.
CON’s = 1) Can’t generalise his damage to damage to other frontal lobe damage patients, let alone the population (beta bias)
2) Data was gathered retrospectively, he could have had some brain abnormality before the incident
Evaluate localisation of function in terms of ‘are functions really localised?’
Hint - this is the equipotentiality theory point ;)
1) Lashley proposed the ‘equipotentiality theory’, suggests that the basic motor and sensory functions are localised, but higher mental functions are not.
2) Intact areas of the cortex may take over responsibilitiesfollowing significant brain injury e.g. stroke
3) The brain may be more complicated than the ‘LoF’ theory suggests.It undermines LoF and cites it as a partial explanation.
4) Localisation of Function is potentially deterministic (not a complete picture) - lacks validity.
Evaluate LoF in terms of potential support from aphasia studies
1) LoL (Localisation of language) is supported by aphasia studies: Broca’s area was discovered by helping people like Tan who had aphasia
2) This provides biological support for LoF and LoL
3) Case studies are a limited methodology however: ‘Tan’ had damage to other regions which could’ve acted as a confounding variable.
3b) Since post-mortem is retrospective, cause & effect is impossible to determine. This undermines any support it may give.
Evaluate LoF in terms of individual differences
HINT (this is the minorly sexist one ;)
1) There is significant variability in the patterns of brain activation when reading.
2) ‘Harastly et al’ found gender differences in B&W’s areas, women had proportionally larger regions - May explain the superior language skills of females
3) The brain may be more complex than LoF suggests, understanding functional specialisation may require an idiographic approach, compared to the nomothetic approach LoF takes.
Define lateralisation
The ideas that the two halves of the brain are functionally different - that each hemisphere has functional specialisations
The left hemisphere is dominant at …
The right hemisphere is dominant at…
LH = Dominant at language & speech RH = Excels at visual-motor tasks
How are the two hemisphere’s connected?
Through the corpus callosum, which enables ‘interhemispheric communication’
What does the temporal lobe of the cerebrum do?
Hearing & memory
What does the adrenal cortex release and why is it important?
Cortisol. Important in cardiovascular functioning. Involved in the HPA axis
What does the adrenal medulla release and why is it important?
Adrenaline & noradrenaline
Vital for ‘fight or flight’ response
The pituitary gland is controlled by the ____
Hypothalamus
When one is faced with a threat, the _____ sends a distress signal to the ___________
When one is faced with a threat, the amygdala sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus
State the aim of Sperry & Gazzaniga’s study
To examine the extent to which the two hemispheres are specialised for certain functions
State the procedure of Sperry & Gazzaniga’s study
Completed the study on 11 patients who had undergone a corpus callosotomy (where the corpus callosum was cut in order to treat severe epilepsy). These patients were called ‘split-brain’ patients
State the three tasks in Sperry & Gazzaniga’s study
1) Describe what you see task
2) Tactile task
3) Drawing task
State the procedure and findings of the ‘Describe what you see’ task
a) Picture presented to the RVF (processed by the LH)
Patient could describe what they saw –> LH’s dominance in language production
b) Picture presented to the LVF (processed by the RH)
Patient could NOT describe what they saw
State the procedure and findings of the ‘Tactile’ task
a) Objects placed in right hand (Processed by LH)
Patient could describe what they felt OR could pick up a similar object
b) Objects placed in left hand (Processed by RH)
Patient could NOT describe what they felt, but could identify the presented object by picking a similar one.
State the procedure and findings of the ‘Drawing’ task
Picture presented to RVF (Processed by LH)
Whilst the right hand could attempt to draw a picture, it was never as clear as the left hand
b) Picture presented to LVF (Processed by RH)
Left hand consistently drawers clearer and better pictures than right hand –> Superiority of the RH for visual-motor tasks
Evaluate the advantages of Hemispheric lateralisation
Roger’s chickens
Rogers et al. = Lateralisation is an evolutionary advantage –> Found chickens were using different areas in the hemispheres to perform two tasks simultaneously – finding food and looking for predators. However critics might argue that this lacks external validity as one cannot generalise this because human’s aren’t just ‘scaled up versions of chickens’. –> Oversimplification –> Limited evidence base???
Evaluate Hemispheric lateralisation in terms of ‘Lateralisation changes with age’
(Roger’s chickens)
Individual differences. Szaflarski et al. = Language is less lateralised in older people. However, possibly lateralisation is adaptive, compensating for decline – providing an advantage. Therefore one must be cautious when externally generalising this work.
Evaluate Hemispheric lateralisation in terms of lacking temporal validity
Turk reported that patient JW has developed the ability to speak using his RH
Undermines the face validity of Sperry’s original work. However JW could be unrepresentative – individual differences. Therefore he may not provide a reliable challenge to Sperry’s work.
Define (neural) plasticity
The brain’s ability to adapt as a result of experience
State 4 ways in which neural connections can be formed/changed via experience
a) Life experience
b) Video games
c) Meditation
b) Jobs
Describe ‘life experience’ as a way in which neural connections can be formed/changed
Learning to juggle increased grey matter in visual cortex in 60 year-old ppts
Describe ‘video games’ as a way in which neural connections can be formed/changed
Super Mario study - increases in grey matter after game play
Describe ‘meditation’ as a way in which neural connections can be formed/changed
Tibetan monks had an increase in gamma waves after meditation in comparison to a student control group
Describe ‘jobs’ as a way in which neural connections can be formed/changed
Maguire et al. Taxi driver study
Studied the brain of London Taxi drivers. As part of their training, they must take a complex test. Found that they had significantly more grey matter in the hippocampus (compared to a matched control group). The longer they had been in the job, the more pronounced the structural difference (a positive correlation). The result of learning the information may alter the structure of the taxi drivers brain
The two ways (neural) plasticity occurs
1) Neural unmasking
2) Synaptic pruning
Define neural unmasking
Where ‘dormant’ synapses (which have not received enough input to be active yet) open their connections to compensate for a nearby area of the brain
Define synaptic pruning
As we age, rarely used connections are deleted and frequently used connections are strengthened. It’s adaptive due to the fact it improves our brain’s efficiency.
Define functional recovery
The recovery of abilities and mental processes that have been compromised as a result of brain injury or disease
An example of plasticity
State three structural changes in the brain that support functional recovery
a) Axonal sprouting
b) Reformation of blood vessels
c) Recruitment of homologous (similar) areas on the opposite side of the brain to perform similar tasks
Describe axonal sprouting
The growth of new nerve endings which connect undamaged neurones to form new pathways
Evaluate (neural) plasticity by talking about the Maguire et al. Taxi driver study
Studied the brain of London Taxi drivers. As part of their training, they must take a complex test Found that they had significantly more grey matter in the hippocampus (compared to a matched control group) The longer they had been in the job, the more pronounced the structural difference (a positive correlation) The result of learning the information may alter the structure of the taxi drivers brain However correlation is not causation, extraneous variables could have caused this… more research needed?
Furthermore… It is difficult to manipulate the IV and to fully control any extraneous variables causation is difficult to reliably establish undermines the internal validity of plasticity research
Also, research investigating plasticity of the brain is limited Maguire’s research is biologically reductionist Only examines a single biological factor in relation to spatial memory Limited and fails to take into account all different processes involved in special navigation Possibly a more holistic approach may be more appropriate
Evaluate (neural) plasticity by talking about the Super Mario study
Video games increase grey matter in various parts of the brain including the cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum when comparing to a control group.
Video games involve complex cognitive and motor actions which result in new synaptic connections in the brain areas responsible for spatial awareness and navigation, planning, working memory and motor performance - which are important skills when playing various videogames!
Evaluate functional recovery by talking about RWA - Neurorehabilitation
Understanding the processes of functional recovery has led to the development of neurorehabilitation – uses motor therapy & electrical stimulation of the brain to help stroke patients Required due spontaneous recovery’s way of slowing down after initial boost. Demonstrates the positive application of research to improve cognitive function and supports plasticity and functional recovery
Evaluate functional recovery by talking about age differences
The common view is that children’s brains have a greater propensity for reorganisation than adults However Bezzola et al. = just 40 hours of golf training produced neural changes in the brain’s of 40-60 year olds Despite this, the capacity for neural reorganisation is still much greater in children than in adults – adults require more work to learn something than children do comparatively
What does fMRI stand for and define it
Functional magnetic resonance imaging. It measures blood flow in the brain when somebody performs a task
Describe how fMRI works
- Energy requires glucose and O2; O2 dissociates at respiring brain tissues, therefore becomes deoxygenated
- Oxygenated and deoxygenated Hb have different magnetic qualities (due to Fe2+ ions in Haem groups – but don’t need to know for psychology)
- fMRI detects these qualities to create a moving 3D map of the brain’s activity
fMRI has a ___ temporal and ___ spatial resolution
fMRI =
Low temporal resolution
High spatial resolution
What does EEG stand for and define it
EEG = Electroencephalogram
It measures electrical activity through electrodes attached to the scalp. Processed in the form of action potentials and graphed over time
State the four types of EEG patterns (waves)
Alpha (α)
Beta (β)
Theta (θ)
Delta (δ)
Amplitude =
The intensity of the activity (top-bottom). Delta waves are highest
Frequency =
Speed/quantity (left-right). Beta waves are highest
EEG’s & ERP’s have a ___ temporal and ___ spatial resolution
EEG = (same as ERP’s)
High temporal resolution
Low spatial resolution
What does ERP stand for and define it
ERP = Event-related potential
Very similar to EEG’s, except in ERP’s a stimulus is presented to a participant.
Describe ‘averaging’
Because a single ERP is difficult to separate from the brain’s background activity, a stimulus is presented 100’s-1000’s of times and a mean response is calculated. This is averaging
Sensory ERP’s =
ERP’s that occur in the first 100 milliseconds. Show the sensory response to a stimulus
Cognitive ERP’s =
ERP’s that occur after the first 100 milliseconds. Reflect some form of information processing that’s taken place.
Describe post-mortem examinations
Researchers study the physical brain of someone who displayed a particular symptom
when they were alive.
Examples = Broca & Wernicke’s areas, HM, Iverson examining the brains of SCZ patients finding high amounts of dopamine in limbic system…
State one good ting about post-mortem examinations
They allow for a detailed examination of the anatomical and neurochemical aspects of the brain - far more detailed than with other techniques
State one bad thing about ERP’s
They are restricted to the neocortex only
State one bad thing about post-mortem examinations
The collected data is retrospective, lacks temporal validity. Cannot establish cause & effect…
