Psychopathology

Question 1

What are the four definitions of abnormality?

Answer 1

1. statistical infrequency
2. deviation from social norms
3. Failure to function adequately
4. deviation from social norms.

Question 2

What is meant by statistical infrequency?

Answer 2

Whereby a person’s behaviour is classified as abnormal if it is rare or statistically unusual. It is usually shown on a frequency graph where the extreme ends define what is not the norm.

Question 3

Evaluation of statistical infrequency.

Answer 3

– some behaviour is desirable and it is hard to distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviour. - a high IQ is statistical abnormal but is desirable; whereas obesity is statistically normal but undesirable.
+ helps to address what is meant by normal in a statistical context. It helps us make cut-off points in terms of diagnosis eg if you score less than 2 on an IQ test then you have an intellectual disability = abnormal.
– However, this ‘cut-off’ point is subjective - how do we decide who is abnormal and gets treatment.

Question 4

What is meant by deviation from social norms?

Answer 4

Norms are expected ways of behaving in a society according to the majority and those members of society who do not think and act like everyone else breaks the social norms and are thus ‘abnormal’.

• these ‘norms’ may be implicit or defined by law.

Question 5

What are the four influences that can affect what we might call deviation from social norms? + give examples for each. –use as evaluation.

Answer 5

1. Culture - different cultures have different norms: it is common in Southern Europe to stand much closer to strangers than in the UK.
2. Historical context - what was once abnormal is now normal - homosexuality was illegal until 1969.
3. Context and situation - behaviour is one situation = normal, but abnormal in another. - wearing a fancy dress costume to a party = normal, but for real life = abnormal
4. Age and gender - Different people can behave in the same way and for some will be normal and others abnormal - a man wearing a dress = abnormal, a woman = normal. BUT…..TIMES ARE CHANGING!

Question 6

Evaluation of deviation from social norms.

Answer 6

– it is susceptible to abuse because it varies with changing attitudes - it can be used to incarcerate non-conformists.
+ it is able to distinguish desirable from undesirable behaviour.
– There is no universal agreement over social norms and opinions can vary due to the four influences.

Question 7

What is meant by failure to function adequately?

Answer 7

This is being unable to cope with the demands of everyday life (eating regularly) - lack of functioning is abnormal if it causes distress to self and others.

They may be unable to perform the behaviours necessary for day-to-day living e.g. self-care, hold down a job, interact meaningfully with others.

Question 8

What are some of the characteristics of failure to function adequately?

Answer 8

1. suffering
2. danger to self
3. standing out
4. loss of control
5. causes observer discomfort

Question 9

Evaluation of failure of function adequately.

Answer 9

– distress may be judged subjectively, and what someone may see as abnormal is infact normal to someone else.
– what may appear as an abnormal behaviour on someone, is infact helpful for them and they can function with it eg, a person who has the OCD of hand-washing may find that the behavior makes him cheerful, happy and better able to cope with his day.
+ it is holistic instead of reductionist as it looks at the behaviours of the individual.

Question 10

What is meant by deviation from ideal mental health?

Answer 10

Rather than defining what is abnormal, this definition defines what is, in fact, normal and anything that deviates from this is considered abnormal.

Question 11

What are some of the characteristics that JAHODA identified in which we consider necessary for ideal mental health?

Answer 11

1. high self-esteem
2. self-actualisation
3. accurate perception of reality
4. positive friendships and relationships
5. environmental mastery

Question 12

Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health.

Answer 12

– unrealistic criteria because it is pratically impossible for any individual to achieve all of the ideal characteristics at one time. - it is too ideal.
+ This definition focuses on what is helpful and desirable for the individual, rather than the other way round.

Question 13

What are the three mental health disorders we study?

Answer 13

Phobias, depression and OCD

Question 14

What are the EMOTIONAL characteristics of a phobia?

Answer 14

Excessive fear, anxiety and panic caused by a specific object or situation.

Question 15

What are the BEHAVIOURAL characteristics of a phobia?

Answer 15

Avoidance, faint or freeze. This interfers with everyday life.

Question 16

What are the COGNITIVE characteristics of a phobia?

Answer 16

A rational argument that does not help and the unreasonableness of behaviour is recognised.

Question 17

What are the EMOTIONAL characteristics of depression?

Answer 17

Negative emotions, sadness, loss of interest and sometimes anger.

Question 18

What are the BEHAVIOURAL characteristics of depression?

Answer 18

Reduced or increased activity which is related to energy levels, sleep and eating.

Question 19

What are the COGNITIVE characteristics of depression?

Answer 19

Irrational negative thoughts, an inability to concentrate.

Question 20

What are the EMOTIONAL characteristics of OCD?

Answer 20

Anxiety and distress, depression.

Question 21

What are the BEHAVIOURAL characteristics of OCD?

Answer 21

Compulsive behaviours to reduce obsessive thoughts, these are repetitive and are used to reduce anxiety.

Question 22

What are the COGNITIVE characteristics of OCD?

Answer 22

Recurrent, intrusive, uncontrollable thoughts(obsessions), these are more than everyday worries. There is also an awareness that behaviour is irrational.

Question 23

What is the explanation for explaining phobias?

Answer 23

The two process model which includes classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Briefly includes social learning.

Question 24

Explain the two process for explaining phobias.

Answer 24

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - the phobia is acquired through an association between a NS and an UCR, this then becomes a NS with an CS producing fear as a result.
OPERANT CONDITIONING - phobia is maintained through negative reinforcement (avoidance of fear).
SOCIAL LEARNING - a phobic behaviour is produced due to modelling others behaviours.

Question 25

Evaluation of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias.

Answer 25

+ One strength comes from research evidence. Watson & Raynor demonstrated the process of classical conditioning in the formation of phobias in Little Albert, who was conditioned to fear white rats. This supports the idea that classical conditioning is involved in acquiring phobias.

• • Diathesis-stress model, not everyone bitten by a dog developes a phobia, thus it may depend if you have a genetic vulnerability for phobias.
• • it is reductionist as phobias may develope due to cognitive reasons eg irrational thinking, not just learning.

Question 26

What is the aim of treatments based on behavioural approach towards phobias?

Answer 26

They aim to replace the learned fearful response with a relaxation response.

Question 27

What are the two ways of treating phobias?

Answer 27

Systematic de-sensitisation (SD) and Flooding.

Question 28

Explain SD as an explanation for treating phobias.

Answer 28

• The whole treatment is based on counter conditioning where a phobic stimulus is now associated with a new response of relaxation.
• They use a de-sensitisation hierarchy, which gradually introduces the person to their feared stimulus eg, seeing a picture of a spider to holding one.
• They are taught relaxation techniques throughout the process, thus anxiety is reduced as a result (reciprocal inhibition)

Question 29

Evaluation of SD in treating phobias.

Answer 29

+ it is extremely effective as it has a success rate of 90%. Thye have tested it on both spider phobia and injection phobia ( very common)
– SD may only be effective in the theraputic situation - what happens if a spider appears without warning!
+ behavioural therapies are fast and require less effort than CBT.

Question 30

Explain flooding as an explanation for treating phobias.

Answer 30

• It is one LONG session where the patient will experience their phobia at its worst while practising relaxation techniques.
• Procedure can be conducted ‘in vivo’ or in ‘virtual reality’.
• A person’s fear response has a time limit as adrenaline and anxiety levels will decrease over time.
• The patient is taught how to relax and will quickly learn how to master the feared situation in one session.
• With flooding they are unable to avoid their phobia(negatively reinforce).

Question 31

Evaluation of Flooding.

Answer 31

+ Flooding is effective - research shows that it is more effective than SD and is much quicker - Choy et al. Thus it is also cost effective!
– However, it is highly traumatic - patients may not be able to deal with the experience, therefore they may quit the experience which reduces effectiveness.
– Complex phobias (social phobia) may not be able to be treated by flooding because some are caused by irrational thinking, not an unpleasant experience.
+ it is good for treating specific phobias.

Question 32

What are the two cognitive approaches for explaining depression?

Answer 32

Beck’s negative triad and Ellis’ ABC model.

Question 33

Explain Beck’s negative triad.

Answer 33

NEGATIVE SCHEMA - develops in childhood due to parental rejection and can lead to cognitive biases of the world.
NEGATIVE TRIAD - irrational and negative view of self, the world and the future.

Question 34

Explain Ellis’ ABC model.

Answer 34

Activating events
Beliefs (irrational/rational)
Consequences
The ‘activating events’ have ‘consequences’. These consequences are caused by ‘irrational/rational beliefs’.

Question 35

Evaluation of the cognitive approach to explaining depression.

Answer 35

+ Therapies based on the cognitive model can be very effective, CBT in conjunction with anti-depressants have been shown to be 2x more effective.
– Approach is reductionist - it does not take into account the biological factors eg lower levels of serotonin can cause depression.

Question 36

The cognitive approach for treating depression - CBT- what is the basic aim?

Answer 36

The treatment involves identifying irrational thoughts and replacing them with positive coping strategies.

Question 37

Explain CBT as a way of treating depression.

Answer 37

1. the therapist and client identify faulty cognitions.
2. the therapist tries to show cognitions aren’t true.
3. together they set goals to think in more positive ways.
4. CBT focuses on the present situation.
5. therapists sometimes encourage patients to keep a diary or complete homework.

Question 38

Evaluation of CBT and how it can help treat depression.

Answer 38

+ Research by Hollen - she compared treatments for severely depressed patients and those who had CBT for 16weeks had a 40% relapse rate within 12 months; compared with a 45% relapse for drug therapy.
– There are individual differences and CBT is not suitable for those with rigid irrational beliefs.
+ CBT has long-lasting benefits - the learned skills can be used to prevent symptoms from returning.

Question 39

What are the two ways of explaining OCD via the genetic explanation?

Answer 39

Genetic and neural explanation.

Question 40

What is the definition of the genetic explanation?

Answer 40

Individuals inherit specific genes from their parents that are related to the onset of OCD.

Question 41

Genetic explanation for OCD - explain the COMPT gene.

Answer 41

The COMPT gene - this regulates the production of dopamine - lower activity of the compt gene leads to higher levels of dopamine, which is involved in OCD.

Question 42

Genetic explanation for OCD - explain the SERT gene.

Answer 42

The SERT gene - this affects the transport of the neurotransmitter serotonin - thus mutations in this gene can result in low levels of serotonin - found in OCD patients

Question 43

Genetic explanation for OCD - explain twin studies.

Answer 43

TWIN STUDIES - supports the genetic explanation for OCD. Nesaat looked at various twin studies and found that 68% of MZ twins shared OCD and 31% of DZ twins shared OCD. This is solid evidence that OCD has a genetic origin.

Question 44

What is the definition of the neural explanation for explaining OCD?

Answer 44

Some individuals may have abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters or abnormal brain structures.

Question 45

Abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters: serotonin.

Answer 45

Low levels of serotonin are linked to OCD and depression - anti-depressants that increase serotonin reduce the symptoms of OCD.

Question 46

abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters: dopamine.

Answer 46

Dopamine levels are abnormally high in OCD patients - based on animal studies where high doses of dopamine were given = they resembled compulsions as seen in OCD.

Question 47

How are brain structures involved in the neural explanation for OCD? - Basal ganglia.

Answer 47

The basal ganglia is a brain structure involved in multiple processes, including the coordination of movement. Patients who suffer head injuries in this region often develop OCD-like symptoms, following their recovery.

Question 48

How are brain structures involved in the neural explanation for OCD? - Orbitofrontal cortex.

Answer 48

This is a region in the brain which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions. PET scans have found higher activity in the orbitofrontal cortex in patients with OCD.

Question 49

Evaluation of both the neural and genetic explanation for explaining OCD.

Answer 49

+ there is a lot of research support for genetics - fMRI is used to produce images of brain activity in OCD patients.
– biological approach is reductionist - only looks at genes which cause OCD - thus it does not take into account situational factors.
+ twin studies are excellent proof of the genetic explanation for OCD.
– some of the genes, especially the SERT gene is not specific to OCD, can be clearly linked to depression.

Question 50

The biological approach for treating OCD. - drug therapy explain.

Answer 50

Drug therapy is the most common method used to treat OCD. Anti-depressants increase serotonin which can stop the onset of OCD symptoms.
Anti-depressants (like anti-anxiety drugs) improve mood and reduce anxiety which is experienced by patients with OCD.

Question 51

Evaluation of the drug therapy bio explanation for treating OCD.

Answer 51

+ Drug therapies are preferred - less time and less effort than CBT and patients may benefit from interaction with a caring doctor.
– Major side effects - some drugs such as SSRI’s ( a type of anti-depressant) can have drastic side effects. These include insomnia, hallucination(less common) and high blood pressure.