Memory

Question 1

Who proposed the Multi-store model of memory? MSM

Answer 1

Atkinson and Shiffrin.

Question 2

What are the three types of coding?

Answer 2

Visual, Acoustic and Semantic

Question 3

Draw a diagram of the MSM.

Answer 3

Sensory store —-(attention)—– STM —(rehersal)—– LTM
I
( forgetting)

Question 4

Describe the coding, capacity and duration of the Sensory store.

Answer 4

Coding: Visual
Capacity: Large capacity( all sensory experience)
Duration: very short( 1/2 second ish)

Question 5

Describe the coding, capacity and duration of the STM.

Answer 5

Coding: acoustic
Capacity: 7+/- 2 items. = limited
Duration: 18-30 seconds.

Question 6

Describe the coding, capacity and duration of the LTM.

Answer 6

Coding: mainly semantic
Capacity: unlimited
Duration: unlimited.

Question 7

Evaluation of MSM - strengths

Answer 7

One strength of the multistore model is that it gives us a good understanding of the structure and process of the STM.
It has allowed researchers to expand on this model. Therefore, the model is influential as it has generated a lot of research into memory.

Many memory studies provide evidence to support the distinction between STM and LTM (in terms of encoding, duration and capacity). The model can account for primacy & recency effects.

The model is supported by studies of amnesiacs: For example the HM case study. HM is still alive but has marked problems in long-term memory after brain surgery. He has remembered little of personal (death of mother and father) or public events (Watergate, Vietnam War) that have occurred over the last 45 years. However his short-term memory remains intact.

Question 8

Evaluation of MSM - limitations.

Answer 8

The model is oversimplified, in particular when it suggests that both short-term and long-term memory each operate in a single, uniform fashion. We now know is this not the case.

It has now become apparent that both STM and LTM are more complicated than previously thought. For example, the Working Model of Memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) showed that STM is more than just one simple unitary store and comprises different components (e.g. central executive, Visuospatial etc.).

Question 9

What are the three types of LTM?

Answer 9

Episodic, Semantic and Procedural.

Question 10

What is episodic memory?

Answer 10

These are personal unique memories(an ‘episode’ in your life) that can be consciously recalled. Also declarative( can be expressed verbally). eg. remembering the first time you went holiday.

Question 11

What is semantic memory?

Answer 11

This is knowledge shared by everyone and is also a type of declarative memory.
However, the conscious recall here is of facts that have meaning, as opposed to the recall of past life events associated with episodic memory. For instance, recalling that you listen to music using your ears does not require knowing when or where you first learned this fact.

Question 12

What is procedural memory?

Answer 12

This is knowing how to do something( a ‘procedure’). It is NOT declarative as it is implicit knowledge that does not require conscious recall. E.g. riding a bike –you might struggle to consciously recall how to manage the task, but we can [unconsciously] perform it with relative ease.

Question 13

Who came up with the idea of the Working memory model and what does it expand?

Answer 13

Baddely and Hitch.

This explanation expands the idea of STM.

Question 14

What are the many components of the WMM?

Answer 14

1. central executive
2. visuospatial sketchpad
3. phonological loop: articulatory control system(inner voice) and phonological store(inner ear)
4. episodic buffer.

Question 15

Draw a diagram of the WMM.

Answer 15

https://psychologyhubcouk.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/wmm-diagram.png?w=620

Question 16

What does the central executive do?

Answer 16

This manages attention, and controls information from the two ‘slave stores’. (VSS + PL)

Question 17

What does the phonological loop do?

Answer 17

This temporarily retains language-based information, consisting of:
An articulatory rehearsal process (‘inner voice’) of language, including any language presented visually to convert to a phonological state, for storage in the:
Phonological store (‘inner ear’), which holds auditory speech information and the order in which it was heard (or any visually-presented language converted by the articulatory process)

Question 18

What does the visuospatial sketchpad do?

Answer 18

Stores and processes information in a visual form. It is commonly referred to as the ‘inner eye’.
The sketchpad also displays and manipulates visual and spatial information held in long-term memory. For example, the spatial layout of your house is held in LTM. Try answering this question: How many windows are there in the front of your house? You probably find yourself picturing the front of your house and counting the windows. An image has been retrieved from LTM and pictured on the sketchpad.

Question 19

What does the episodic buffer do?

Answer 19

This is a TEMPORARY store. It acts as a ‘backup’ store which communicates with both LTM and the components of the WMM.

Question 20

Evaluation of WMM - strengths.

Answer 20

The WMM has replaced the idea that STM is a unitary store.
It explains a lot more than the MSM - it makes sense of a range of tasks (reading, visual processing, comprehension etc..)
The WMM has high ecological validity(applies to real life) eg. reading = phonological loop. Problem-solving: Central executive. Navigation = Visuospatial sketchpad.
THE KF CASE STUDY: KF suffered brain damage from an accident that damaged his STM. KF’s impairment was mainly for verbal information - his memory for visual information was largely unaffected. This shows that there are separate STM components for visual information (VSS) and verbal information (phonological loop).

Question 21

Evaluation of WMM - limitations.

Answer 21

There is little evidence for how the central executive works, and the capacity for this store has never been measured.
WMM only involves STM, so it is not a fully comprehensive model of memory, does not include SM or LTM.
Brain damage evidence can be unreliable because the trauma faced may cause problems in identifying the causal factor.

Question 22

What are the two explanations for forgetting in the interference theory?

Answer 22

Proactive interference.

Retroactive interference.

Question 23

What is proactive interference?

Answer 23

This is where old memories will interfere with creating new ones.

Question 24

What is retroactive interference?

Answer 24

This is where new memories interfere with old memories.

Question 25

Evaluation of the explanations for forgetting.

Answer 25

+ Underwood analysed many studies and found that the more lists learnt the lower the % of recall.
+ Baddley and Hitch rugby players who played fewer games had better recall of teams they played against. They have less interference.
– most studies use artificial research which fails to represent everyday memory = low ecological validity.
– there are individual differences because people with a greater working memory span are less susceptible to proactive interference.

Question 26

What is the second explanation for forgetting?

Answer 26

Retrieval failure.

Question 27

What is retrieval failure?

Answer 27

This is whereinformation is stored in the LTM, but cannot be accessed. It cannot be accessed because the retrieval cues are not present.

Question 28

What are the two examples of retrieval cues?

Answer 28

Context = in the environment(place, smell ect.)
State = our internal state( Physical, emotional, drunk ect)

Question 29

Study for context-dependent forgetting.

Answer 29

Baddeley and Godden:
They asked deep-sea divers to memorize a list of words. One group did this on the beach and the other group underwater. When they were asked to remember the words half of the beach learners remained on the beach, the rest had to recall underwater and vice versa.

They found that recall was best when the initial context(land or water) matched the recall environment. Same environment for recall and learning = recalled 40% more words.

Question 30

Study for state-dependent forgetting.

Answer 30

Goodwin:
He investigated the effect of alcohol on state dependent forgetting and retrieval. He found that recall is best when initial state (drunk/sober) matched their state recall.

Question 31

Factors affecting the accurcay of EWT: what are the two main subsections of misleading information?

Answer 31

Leading questions and post-event discussion.

Question 32

Definition of a leading question.

Answer 32

Leading questions suggest the desired answer. A person of authority will ask a question that prompts or encourages the answer wanted.

Question 33

Definition of post-event discussion.

Answer 33

When witnesses of an event discuss what they saw afterwards. Can lead to misinterpreting information.

Question 34

Explain the key study of Loftus and Palmer for the leading question explanation.

Answer 34

Ask a group of participants to watch a video of a car crash.
Then asked - “how fast was the car going when they…”
The end verb was changed from ‘bumped’ to ‘smashed’ ect.
They had to estimate the speed the cars were going, the harsher the verb the faster the estimated speed.
People who got the word ‘smashed’ = 65mph.
People who got word ‘bumped’ = 20mph.
They were then asked a week later if they saw any broken glass.
In the ‘smashed’ category 16/50 said they saw broken glass even though there wasn’t any - memory is easily distorted by questioning technique.

Question 35

Explain the key study by Gabbert for post-event discussion.

Answer 35

Recruited 60 participants to watch a video of a girl committing a crime.
30 watched a clip where they saw the girl commit a crime; the other 30 watched a video of a girl who did not commit any crime.
They were both then asked to discuss what they saw( both groups under the impression they saw the same video)
He found that 71% of the participants recalled information that they had not seen.
Shows that discussion has a detrimental effect on EWT.

Question 36

Evaluation of both Loftus and Palmer’s and Gabbert’s study.

Answer 36

– in both there is the use of artificial material. The films used in both studies included less anxiety than in real life - so it is not an accurate representation of EWT, as in the field there is much more to contend with. ( LOW ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY)
– there are demand characteristics in these lab studies that reduces the validity( + improves reliability though). the participants knew they were taking part in something and were more likely to pay closer attention..
+ HOWEVER… they both have real life application in the form of the cognitive interview. They do not ask leading questions and they also change the order of questioning to reduce the schema filling in the blanks.

Question 37

Factors affecting the accurcay of EWT: Anxiety is also a reason. What is it in this context?

Answer 37

Anxiety or emotional and physical arousal is said to effect recall of an event. The yerkes- dodson effect.

Question 38

Explain the yerkes-dodson effect. Draw a diagram.

Answer 38

As our anxiety increses so does our performance and ability to recall up until a certain point(optimum arousal). After this point our performance becomes impaired.

Question 39

Anxiety has a negative effect on recall study:

Answer 39

Johnson and Scott :
weapon focus knife or pencil.
One group of participants were in a waiting room and saw a man holding a knife coming out a room. Repeated with a guy holding a pencil.
The participants who saw the knife struggled to recall the identity of the man they saw, whereas those who saw the pencil correctly identified the man.

Question 40

Anxiety has a positive effect on recall study:

Answer 40

Christianson and Hubinette:
High anxiety victims remembered the most accurately.
They showed that witnesses of a real life incident had remarkable accurate memories of a stressful event involving weapons. (Bank robbery and death)
Thirteen witnesses were re-interviewed five months later. Recall was found to be accurate, even after a long time, and two misleading questions inserted by the research team had no effect on recall accuracy.

Question 41

Evaluation of how anxiety has an effect on EWT.

Answer 41

• • in the J+S study, weapon focus may have been due to the surprise of seeing a man holiday a knife rather than anxiety of the situation (Pickel).
• • field studies lack control as you cannot control extraneous varibles that may have an effect on what happens.
• -of course there are ethical issues, as always! It was a very distressing event - both.

Question 42

Improving EWT – the Cognitive Interview. What is it?

Answer 42

This is a method of interviewing eye witnesses and victims about what they remember from a crime scene.

Question 43

What are the four main points from the cognitive interview?

Answer 43

1. Reinstate the context - cued recall eg imagine yourself being there again.
2. Report everything - every detail counts.
3. Chnage the order of questions - reduces schema filling in the blanks.
4. Change perspective - what would the person commiting the crime may have seen - disrupts the schema.

Question 44

Evaluation of the Cognitive Interview.

Answer 44

– the cognitive interview is extremely time consuming and can be stressful and fustratingfor police to undertake.
+ more than 30% more information is produced via this technique.
– however, there was also a 60% increase in false positives using this technique.