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Psychology - Paper 1 > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 definitions of abnormality?

A

1) . Statistical infrequency.
2) . Deviation from social norms.
3) . Failure to function adequately.
4) . Deviation from ideal mental health.

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2
Q

Define statistical infrequency?

A

Any behaviour that is numerically rare on a standard distribution graph is deemed abnormal.

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3
Q

Define deviation from social norms?

A

Any behaviour that deviates from the expected behaviours of society is seen as abnormal.

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4
Q

Define failure to function adequately?

A

When an individual fails to cope with the demands of everyday life.

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5
Q

Define deviation from ideal mental health?

A

When an individual possesses behaviours that doesn’t conform with the criteria that make someone psychologically healthy.

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6
Q

What is an example of statistical infrequency?

A

IQ and intellectual disability disorder:

  • Those scoring below 70 or above 130 are ‘abnormal’.
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7
Q

What is an example of deviation from social norms?

A

Antisocial personality disorder (APD):

  • Psychopaths lack empathy and fail to conform to the ethical behaviour of society.
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8
Q

What are the signs Rosenhan and Seligman (1989) proposed of failing to cope?

A

1) . No longer conforms to interpersonal rules (e.g. eye contact).
2) . Experience personal distress.
3) . Behaviour is irrational or dangerous.

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9
Q

What is an example of failure to function adequately?

A

Intellectual disability disorder:

  • In order for diagnosis, the person would have to fail to cope, not just be statistically abnormal.
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10
Q

Whats the difference between failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health?

A

Failure to function adequately =

criteria has to be met in order to be abnormal.

Deviation from ideal mental health =

the criteria has to be absent in order to be abnormal.

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11
Q

Who suggested the criteria of ideal mental health?

A

Jahoda (1958).

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12
Q

What is Jahoda’s criteria of ideal mental health?

A

1) . No symptoms or distress.
2) . We are rational and perceive ourselves accurately.
3) . We self-actualise.
4) . We can cope with stress.
5) . We have a realistic view of the world.
6) . We have good self-esteem and lack guilt.
7) . We are independent.
8) . Successful at work, and love leisure.

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13
Q

What happens if any of these criteria are absent?

A

The individual is deemed abnormal.

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14
Q

How is there a blur between the symptoms of ideal mental health and failure to function adequately?

A

They symptoms may overlap;

e.g. inability to keep a job may be failure to function (cope with pressure of work), or; deviation from ideal mental health.

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15
Q

What are the evaluations of statistical infrequency?

A

1) . Real-life application.
2) . Unusual characteristics can be positive.
3) . Not everyone benefits from a label.

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16
Q

How is there real-life application of statistical infrequency?

A

All assessments of patients with mental disorders includes a comparison to statistical norms.

  • Intellectual disability disorder is an example.
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17
Q

How come some unusual characteristics can be positive?

A

An IQ of 130 is just as rare as that of 70, but it’s desirable, and doesn’t require treatment.

  • Means statistical infrequency should be used alone to diagnose disorders.
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18
Q

How come some people don’t benefit from a label?

A

People who live a happy life don’t require a label of abnormality;

  • If your IQ is 70 and you live a happy life, a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder is unnecessary.
  • Being labelled as abnormal may have a negative impact on their life.
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19
Q

What are the evaluations of deviation from social norms?

A

1) . Not a sole explanation of abnormality.
2) . Social norms are culturally relative.
3) . Definition could lead to human rights abuse.

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20
Q

How is deviation from social norms not a sole explanation of abnormality?

A

APD (psychopathy) shows deviation from social norms is important in defining abnormality, however;

  • Other factors should be consider - e.g. harm to other people.
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21
Q

How are social norms culturally relative?

A

Someone may label someone from a different culture as abnormal, based on their cultures standard of living;

  • e.g. hearing voices is normal in some cultures, but labelled as schizophrenic in the UK.
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22
Q

How could the definition lead to the abuse of human rights?

A

Labelling someone as abnormal for deviating can have a negative impact;

  • e.g. draptomania (where black slaves try to escape) –> in history, if a black slave tries to they are labelled as abnormal for deviating.
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23
Q

What are the evaluations of failure to function adequately?

A

1) . Recognises the patient’s perspective.
2) . This is the same as deviation from social norms.
3) . Based on subjective judgements.

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24
Q

How does failure to function adequately recognise the patient’s perspective?

A

Acknowledges that the experience of the patient is important - however, it is difficult to assess distress as most people are withdrawn to discuss distress.

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25
Q

How is failure to function adequately the same as deviation from social norms?

A

It’s hard to define when someone is behaving maladaptively;

  • People who do extreme sport can be seen as behaving maladaptively, but defining this as abnormal may limit their freedom.
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26
Q

How is defining abnormality through failure to function adequately based on subjective judgements?

A

Someone has to decide whether patient is distressed, but a patient may say they are distressed, but may not be suffering.

  • It’s hard to decide whether a psychiatrist has the right to make these judgements.
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27
Q

What are the evaluations of deviation from ideal mental health?

A

1) . Deviation from ideal mental health is comprehensive.
2) . Definition may be culturally relative.
3) . Unrealistically high standards for mental health.

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28
Q

How is deviation from ideal mental health comprehensive?

A

The definition covers a broad range of criteria fro mental health. Jahoda’s criteria are a good tool for thinking about mental health.

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29
Q

How can deviation from ideal mental health be culturally relative?

A

Some of the criteria are specific to Western European culture.

  • Self-actualisation is irrelevant in collectivist cultures - some traits represent individualistic cultures.
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30
Q

How is there unrealistically high standards for mental health?

A

Not many people will meet all of Jahoda’s criteria, so most people are abnormal.

  • However, this is positive for showing the benefits of improving their mental health.
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31
Q

What are the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of phobias?

A

Behavioural =

  • Panic.
  • Avoidance.

Emotional =

  • Anxiety and fear.
  • Unreasonable responses.

Cognitive =

  • Selective attention to the phobic stimulus.
  • Irrational beliefs.
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32
Q

What are the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of OCD?

A

Behavioural =

  • Compulsions.
  • Avoidance.

Emotional =

  • Anxiety and distress.
  • Guilt and disgust.

Cognitive =

  • Obsessive thoughts.
  • Insight into excessive anxiety.
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33
Q

What are the behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics of depression?

A

Behavioural =

  • Reduced energy (low activity).
  • Disruption to sleep and eating.

Emotional =

  • Lowered mood.
  • Anger.

Cognitive =

  • Poor concentration.
  • ‘Black and white thinking’ (absolutist thinking).
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34
Q

What approach is taken towards explaining and treating phobias?

A

Behavioural.

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35
Q

What approach is taken towards explaining and treating depression?

A

Cognitive.

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36
Q

What approach is taken towards explaining and treating OCD?

A

Biological.

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37
Q

What model did Mowrer propose to explain phobias?

A

Two-process model;

  • Classical conditioning = learning phobia.
  • Operant conditioning = maintaining phobia.
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38
Q

How is a phobia acquired through classical conditioning?

A

Learning by association =

  • UCS =
    triggers a fear response (being bitten).
  • NS =
    is associated with the UCS (person wasn’t originally scare of the dog).
  • NS = CS producing a CR (dog becomes a CS causing a CR of anxiety/fear).
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39
Q

What is an example of a phobia being acquired through classical conditioning?

A

Watson and Raynor - Little Albert =

  • A loud noise (UCS) was produced when Albert played with a white rat, producing a fear (UCR).
  • Rat (NS) now produced a fear as Albert associated it with the bang.
  • He showed fear (CR) every time he seen a rat (CS).
40
Q

How is there a generalisation of fear to other stimuli?

A

e.g. Little Albert also showed a fear to white furry objects (Santa Claus mask).

41
Q

How is a phobia maintained through operant conditioning?

A

Negative reinforcement =

individual produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant.

  • This allows them to escape the anxiety, and this maintains the phobia.
42
Q

What is an example of negative reinforcement?

A

Coulrophobia (fear of clowns) =

  • They will avoid circuses.
  • This ensures the phobia is maintained rather than confronted.
43
Q

What are the evaluations of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias?

A

1) . Two-process model has good explanatory power.
2) . There are alternative explanations for avoidance behaviour.
3) . Two-process model is an incomplete explanation of explaining phobias.
4) . Not all bad experiences lead to phobias.
5) . Doesn’t consider the cognitive aspects of phobias.

44
Q

How does the two-process model have good explanatory power?

A

It has implications for therapy =

  • If a patient is unable to avoid the phobia, the phobic behaviour declines.
45
Q

What are the alternative explanations for avoidance behaviour?

A

Two-process model suggests avoidance is motivated by anxiety reduction, however =

  • agoraphobics, for example, can leave the house with a friend –> some avoidance behaviours are motivated by positive feelings of safety.
46
Q

How is the two-process model an incomplete explanation of phobias?

A

Some aspects of phobic behaviour require further explanation =

  • Biological preparedness –> we innately fear some things more than others form our evolutionary past (fear of snakes).
  • Shows acquiring some phobias is more complex than the two-process model.
47
Q

How is it a limitation that not all bad experiences lead to a phobia?

A

DiNardo et al. found that not all bad experiences (being bitten by a dog) lead to developing a phobia.

  • Conditioning alone cannot fully explain developing a phobia, only explain where vulnerability exists.
48
Q

How come the two-process model doesn’t consider the cognitive aspects of phobias?

A

We know that phobias have cognitive characteristics, however, the behavioural approach is reductionist in only explaining avoidance as a behavioural characteristic.

49
Q

What are the two behavioural approaches to treating phobias?

A

1) . Systematic desensitisation (SD).

2) . Flooding.

50
Q

What is systematic desensitisation based on?

A

Classical conditioning, counter-conditioning and reciprocal inhibition.

51
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A

Gradually reducing anxiety through counter-conditioning =

  • Phobic stimulus (CS) is pared with relaxation (CR) instead of anxiety.
52
Q

What is reciprocal inhibition?

A

It’s impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so, one emotion prevents the other.

53
Q

What is the processes involved in SD?

A

1). Anxiety hierarchy =

a list of fearful stimuli in order of most-least feared.

2). Relaxation =

therapist teaches the patient to relax through relaxation techniques, such as, imagining themselves in relaxing situations.

3) Exposure =

patient is exposed to each level of phobic stimuli in a relaxed state, starting at the bottom of the hierarchy.

54
Q

Whats the difference between SD and flooding?

A

Flooding also involves exposure, but without a gradual exposure up the hierarchy list, or relaxation techniques.

55
Q

What is flooding?

A

Immediately exposing the patient to the phobic stimuli.

56
Q

What is an example of flooding?

A

Arachnophobia =

they may have a spider crawl over their hand until they can fully relax.

57
Q

How does flooding work?

A

Through extinction;

without avoidance behaviour, the patient understands that the phobia is harmless through exhaustion of their fear response.

58
Q

What are the ethical safeguards of flooding?

A

It isn’t unethical, however;

  • Full informed consent is required and they must be fully prepared as it’s an unpleasant experience.
59
Q

What are the evaluations of SD?

A

1) . It’s effective.
2) . Suitable for a diverse range of patients.
3) . Tends to be acceptable to patients.

60
Q

How is SD effective?

A

Gilroy et al. =

  • followed up 42 patients who had SD for arachnophobia in 45-minute sessions.
  • at 3 and 33 months, they were less fearful than the control group who had flooding.
61
Q

How come SD is suitable for a diverse range of patients?

A

For example, those with learning difficulties will struggle to understand the process of flooding.

62
Q

How come SD tends to be accepted by patients?

A

Patients tend to choose SD over flooding, and this is because its less traumatic and more pleasant.

  • Low attrition rate as opposed to flooding (low drop-out).
63
Q

What are the evaluations of flooding?

A

1) . Less effective for some types of phobias.

2) . Traumatic for patients.

64
Q

How come flooding is less effective for some patients?

A

Its less effective for treating more complex phobias.

  • for example; social phobias, as they tend to have cognitive factors (they also think negatively about social situations).
  • may benefit more from cognitive treatments.
65
Q

How is flooding traumatic for patients?

A

Although it isn’t unethical, patients often don’t continue to the end due to it being traumatic.

  • therefore, its less effective and cost-consuming with a high attrition rate.
66
Q

What are the two cognitive approaches to explaining depression?

A

1) . Beck’s cognitive theory of depression (negative triad).

2) . Ellis’ ABC model

67
Q

How does Beck describe depressed patients?

A

Faulty information processing =

  • i.e. thinking in a flawed way.
  • when they look at the negative aspects of a situation, they ignore the positives and blow problems out of proportion –> ‘black and white’ thinking.
68
Q

How does Beck discuss schemas in depressed people?

A

He argues they have negative self-schemas =

  • they interpret all information about themselves negatively as they have a negative interpretation of the world.
69
Q

What is Beck’s negative triad?

A

1) . Negative views of the world =
e. g. ‘the world is a cold, hard place’.
2) . Negative view of the future =
e. g. ‘there is much chance the economy will get better’.
3) . Negative view of the self =
e. g. ‘I am a failure’.

70
Q

What are the evaluations of Beck’s cognitive theory of depression?

A

1) . Good supporting evidence.
2) . Practical application as a therapy.
3) . Doesn’t explain all aspects of depression.

71
Q

What is the supporting evidence for Beck’s theory?

A

Grazioli and Terry (2000) =

  • assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability and depression before and after birth.
  • found those judged to have high cognitive vulnerability were more likely to suffer post-natal depression.
72
Q

What practical application of Beck’s theory is there?

A

Forms the basis of CBT =

  • elements of the negative triad can be identified and challenged, so a patient can test whether the elements of the triad are true.
73
Q

How come Beck’s theory doesn’t explain all aspects of depression?

A

Beck doesn’t explain the anger present in depressed patients.

  • Jarrett (2013) = Beck doesn’t explain why some depressed people experience hallucinations (e.g. Cotard Syndrome).
  • Just focuses on one aspect of depression.
74
Q

What does Ellis say depression is caused by?

A

Irrational thoughts –> any thoughts that interfere with our happiness.

75
Q

What does Ellis’ ABC model explain?

A

How irrational thoughts affect our behaviour and emotional state.

76
Q

What is Ellis’ ABC model?

A

A = activating event =

  • we get depressed when we experience a negative event (e.g. failing an exam).

B = beliefs =

  • negative events trigger irrational beliefs; ‘musturbation’ (belief that we must always succeed), ‘i-can’t-stand-it-it’s’ (belief that its a disaster when things don’t go smoothly), etc.

C = consequences =

  • when an activating event triggers irrational beliefs, there are emotional and behavioural consequences.
77
Q

What is an example of Ellis’ ABC model?

A

If you believe that you must always succeed, then fail an important exam, this can trigger depression.

78
Q

What are the evaluations of Ellis’ ABC model?

A

1) . Only a partial explanation of depression.

2) . Cognitions may not cause all aspects of depression.

79
Q

How is Ellis’ ABC model only a partial explanation of depression?

A

Ellis’ explanation only applies to some kinds of depression because, some people get depressed with an activating event.

  • psychologists call depression after an activating event ‘reactive depression’.
80
Q

How come cognitions don’t cause all aspects of depression?

A

Cognitive primacy –> emotions are influenced by thoughts, however;

  • this isn’t always the case; some people get depressed some time after the causal event as emotions are stored like physical energy (other theories of depression).
81
Q

How is depression treated?

A

CBT.

82
Q

What does beck say CBT is?

A

Patient and therapist work together =

  • identify negative/irrational thoughts to challenge.
83
Q

How does CBT relate to the negative triad?

A

Identify negative thoughts about =

  • self, world and future.
  • challenge thoughts by taking an active role.
84
Q

What is meant by the ‘patient as scientist’?

A
  • Patients test reality of negative thoughts.
  • Record good times.
  • When they say no-one is nice to them, the therapist can show this isn’t true.
85
Q

What is Ellis’ REBT?

A

Extends ABC model to ABCDE model =

  • D = dispute (challenge) irrational belief.
  • E = effect.
86
Q

How does REBT challenge irrational beliefs?

A

1). Empirical argument =

disputing whether there is evidence to support the irrational belief.

2). Logical argument =

disputing whether the negative thought follows the fact.

87
Q

What is behavioural activation?

A

Depressed people =

  • become isolated, worsening symptoms.

Treatment =

  • decrease isolation, increase involvement in activities to raise mood (exercising).
88
Q

What are the evaluations of the cognitive approach to treating depression?

A

:) CBT is effective =

  • March et al. = found combining CBT and antidepressants significantly improved 86% of P.

:( May not work for severe cases =

  • can’t motivate themselves enough for CBT –> can’t be the sole tretment of depression.

:( Some patients want to explore their past =

  • CBT explores present and future, can ignore important aspects of the patients experience.

:( Overemphasis on cognition =

  • ignores environmental influences (poverty, etc) and can prevent progress.
89
Q

What are the 2 biological explanations of OCD?

A

1) . Genetic explanation =
- candidate genes.
- OCD is polygenic.
- different types of OCD.
2) . Neural explanation =
- low levels of serotonin = low mood.
- decision-making system impaired.
- parahippocampal gyrus dysfunctional.

90
Q

What are candidate genes?

A

Specific genes that create a vulnerability for OCD.

91
Q

What are the OCD candidate genes?

A

1) . Serotonin genes =
- e.g. 5HT1-D beta.
- implicated in the transmission of serotonin across synapses.
2) . Dopamine genes =
- also implicated.
- both regulate mood.

92
Q

How is OCD polygenic?

A

Caused by several genes.

93
Q

How many different genes did Taylor (2013) identify in OCD?

A

230 different genes involved in OCD.

94
Q

How is OCD aetiologically heterogenous?

A

One group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may cause the disorder in another person.

  • different types of OCD = result of different variations.
95
Q

What are the evaluations of the genetic explanation of OCD?

A

:) Supporting evidence =

  • Nestadt = MZ (68%), DZ (31%).

:( Too many candidate genes have been identified =

  • each variation only increases risk by a fraction.

:( Environmental factors =

  • concordance rates arent 100%/50%.
  • Cromer et al. = 50% OCD

Psychology - Paper 1 (4 decks)

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