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Psychology - Paper 1 > Attachment > Flashcards

Attachment Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the types of caregiver-infant interactions?

A
  1. Interactional synchrony.

2. Reciprocity.

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2
Q

What is interactional synchrony?

A
  • Mirroring = mother and infant imitate each other in a synchronised way.
  • Carry out the same action ‘simultaneously’.
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3
Q

What is reciprocity?

A
  • One person responds to the other = infant/mother respond in turn to each other’s signals.

Involves close attention to verbal signals and facial expressions.

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4
Q

What research into interactional synchrony is there?

A
  1. Meltzof + Moore = found this in babies as young as 2 weeks old.
  2. Isabella et al. = found high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachments.
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5
Q

What research into reciprocity is there?

A
  1. Brazelton et al. = describes it as a ‘dance’ –> each person responds to each other’s moves.
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6
Q

How does this oppose the ‘traditional’ views of a child’s role?

A
  1. Traditional = baby takes a ‘passive’ role.

2. This suggests that babies take an ‘active’ role as both mother and infant initiate interaction.

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7
Q

What evaluation points are there for interactional synchrony and reciprocity?

A

:) Potential value for society.
:) Observations are usually well controlled.
:( Hard to observe infants.
:( Research is socially sensitive.

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8
Q

How has research into caregiver-infant interactions provided potential value in society?

A
  • Crotwell et al. (2013) = found a 10-minute Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) improved interactional synchrony in 20 low-income mothers and their infants.
  • Findings can lead to methods to improve attachment.
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9
Q

How is research into caregiver-infant interactions usually well controlled?

A
  1. Mother-infant interactions are usually filmed.

2. Babies don’t know they are being observed, so they don’t change their behaviour.

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10
Q

Why is it hard to observe infants?

A
  • What’s being observed is merely movements –> cant determine what’s happening from the babies perspective.
  • Feldman (2012) = says the 2 behaviours simply happen at the same time –> doesn’t tell us the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity.
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11
Q

How is research into caregiver-infant interactions socially sensitive?

A

It suggests that children may be disadvantaged by particular caregiver rearing.

  • e.g. Mothers returning to work soon after birth restrict opportunities for achieving interactional synchrony.
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12
Q

What did Schaffer and Emerson (1964) find about caregiver-infant attachments?

A
  1. Primary attachment figure = usually mother (around 7 months).
  2. Secondary attachment figure = father (by age of 18 months).
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13
Q

What did Grossmann (2002) find about the quality of attachment with the father?

A

Quality of attachment with the father was less important in the teen years than it was with the mother.

  • Fathers may be less important in future emotional development.
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14
Q

What is the typical fathers’ role with the child?

A

Usually play, and this is represented by their attachment.

  • Less to do with nurturing.
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15
Q

What did Field (1978) find about primary caregiver fathers?

A

They adopted the role of a typical mother (smiling, imitating, etc), this was different from the role of secondary caregiver fathers.

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16
Q

What is the ‘key’ to attachment relationships?

A

Not the gender, its the level of nurturing = both mothers and fathers can spend more time smiling, imitating and holding the baby, which builds attachment relationships.

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17
Q

What are the evaluation points for ‘the role of the father’?

A

:( Researchers are interested in different questions.
:( Evidence undermines the idea of fathers having distinct roles.
:( No clear answer about fathers and primary attachments.
:( Research has important economic implications.

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18
Q

How are researchers interested in different questions about the role of the father?

A
  • Some want to know the role of fathers as secondary attachments, others as primary.
  • Psychologists cant answer what the role of a father is.
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19
Q

What evidence undermines the idea of fathers having a distinct role?

A
  1. Grossman (2002) = fathers had an important role in children’s development as secondary attachments (play, stimulation).
  2. McCallum + Golombok (2004) = found children growing up in single/same-sex families don’t develop differently.
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20
Q

How does research fail to provide an answer as to why fathers aren’t primary attachment figures?

A
  1. Could be gender roles = women are expected to be nurturing.
  2. Could be hormones = female hormones (oestrogen) create higher levels of nurturing.
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21
Q

What economic implications has this research provided?

A

Women feel that they have to stay at home as research suggests they are vital for healthy emotional development.

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22
Q

What are Schaffer’s stages of attachment?

A
  1. Asocial stage (first few weeks).
  2. Indiscriminate stage (2-7 months).
  3. Specific attachment (around 7 months).
  4. Multiple attachments (by 1 year).
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23
Q

What is the asocial stage?

A

Similar behaviour towards inanimate objects and humans, however, they are happier in the presence of humans.

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24
Q

What is indiscriminate attachment?

A
  • Preference for humans over objects.
  • Recognise and prefer familiar adults.
  • Don’t show stranger/separation anxiety.
  • Attachment is same towards all.
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25
Q

What is specific attachment?

A

Stranger/separation anxiety when separated from primary attachment figure (the person who interacts and responds to them most - 65% the biological mother).

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26
Q

What are multiple attachments?

A

In Schaffer and Emerson’s study = found secondary attachments formed within a month of forming a primary attachment (29% of the time).

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27
Q

What study did Schaffer and Emerson do to support their theory of the stages of attachment?

A

Glasgow babies (1964).

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28
Q

How many babies were in Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

A

60 –> from mostly w/c families.

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29
Q

What was Schaffer and Emerson’s procedures?

A

Babies visited at home every month for 1 year, then at 18 months.

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30
Q

How was stranger/separation anxiety measured?

A
  1. Separation anxiety = by asking mothers about their babies behaviour in everyday situations (e.g. adult leaving room).
  2. Stranger anxiety = asking mothers questions about their child’s anxiety to unfamiliar adults.
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31
Q

What did Schaffer and Emerson find after 1 year?

A
  1. 50% showed separation anxiety between 25-32 weeks of age.

2. Specific (primary) attachment = those who responded to the right signals and most interactive (usually the mother).

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32
Q

What did Schaffer and Emerson find after 18 months?

A

Primary attachment figure =

  • 65% was the mother.
  • 3% was the father.

39% formed multiple attachments.

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33
Q

What are the evaluation points of Schaffer and Emerson’s study?

A
  1. High external validity.
  2. Study was longitudinal.
  3. How is multiple attachment assessed?
  4. Problem studying the asocial stage.
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34
Q

How does Schaffer and Emerson’s study have high external validity?

A
  • Observations were in natural situations (unaffected by observers).
  • Although behaviour was natural, mothers might not have reported everything.
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35
Q

How does Schaffer and Emerson’s study have high internal validity?

A
  • Longitudinal = the same children were studied, so, there isn’t individual differences (CV) between participants.
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36
Q

How is there a problem with assessing multiple attachments?

A

Just because the baby gets distressed when the individual leaves the Rome, it doesn’t mean they are the primary attachment figure.

  • Bowlby = said there may be playmates as well as attachment figures.
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37
Q

How is there a problem with studying the asocial stage?

A

Difficult to make judgements based on observed behaviour as babies are quite immobile at this time.

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38
Q

What are the 2 animal studies of attachment?

A
  1. Lorenz’ geese - imprinting (1952).

2. Harlow’s monkeys - importance of contact comfort (1958).

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39
Q

What was Lorenz’s procedures?

A
  • Randomly divided 12 goose eggs.

- 6 saw their mother at first, 6 saw Lorenz (hatched in an incubator).

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40
Q

What was Lorenz’s findings?

A
  1. Control group = followed mother.
  2. Incubator group = followed Lorenz.
    - Critical period = a few hours.
    - Sexual imprinting = occurs from a template of desired characteristics in a mate.
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41
Q

What are the evaluation points of Lorenz’s study?

A

:( Hard to generalise findings from a bird to humans.

:) Research support.

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42
Q

Why cant Lorenz’s findings be generalised?

A

Can’t generalise findings from a bird to humans;

  • e.g. geese are immobile straight away, babies are after 6-7 months.
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43
Q

What research support is there for Lorenz’s study?

A

Guiton (1966) = found chicks imprinted on yellow marigolds, and tried to mate with them. However, they learned to imprint with their own kind in some time.

  • Shows imprinting isn’t long-lasting, like Lorenz believed.
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44
Q

How many monkeys were in Harlow’s study?

A

16.

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45
Q

What were the 2 conditions in Harlow’s study?

A

1) Received milk from ‘wire’ mother.
2) Received milk from ‘cloth’ mother.

  • Milk production changed between each ‘mother’.
  • Reactions of monkeys to frightening situations was observed.
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46
Q

What was Harlow’s findings?

A
  1. Both groups spent more time with ‘cloth’ mother, only go to ‘wire’ mother for food.
  2. When frightened, they went to ‘cloth’ mother.
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47
Q

What consequences did the monkeys suffer in the future?

A
  • More aggressive.
  • Less skill with mating.
  • Even killing their own offspring.
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48
Q

What was the critical period for the monkeys?

A

90 days –> over wise attachment wouldn’t form.

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49
Q

What are the evaluation points of Harlow’s study?

A

:) Practical application.
:( Unethical.
:( Hard to generalise findings.

50
Q

What practical application is there of Harlow’s monkeys?

A

Howe (1998) = helped social workers understand risk factors in child abuse, and how to prevent it.

  • Also understand the proper breeding conditions for monkeys in zoos.
51
Q

How is Harlow’s study unethical?

A

There suffering was presumably human-like, however, his research provided sufficient findings that justify his procedures.

52
Q

Why is generalisation an issue in Harlow’s study?

A

Although monkeys are similar to humans, they aren’t humans.

53
Q

What are the 2 explanations of attachment?

A

1) Dollard + Miller (1950) = Learning theory of attachment (behavioural approach).
2) Bowlby’s (1958, 1969) monotropic theory of attachment (evolutionary approach).

54
Q

How did Dollard and Miller describe ‘cupboard love’?

A

Food is important in the formation of attachment = children learn to love whomever feeds them.

55
Q

What do behaviourists focus on as a means of forming attachments?

A

Classical/operant conditioning.

56
Q

What is classical conditioning, applied to attachment?

A
  • UCS (food) leads to UCR (a feeling of pleasure).
  • NS (mother) provides the food, therefore, is associated with it and becomes the CS.
  • Now, the sight of the caregiver (CS), produces a CR (pleasure) = this is the basis of attachment love.
57
Q

What is operant conditioning, applied to attachment?

A

Explains why babies cry for comfort.

  • Crying provides a response form the caregiver (e.g. feeding), as long as crying provides the correct response, it is reinforced.
58
Q

What is negative reinforcement, applied to attachment?

A

When the baby stops crying after the caregiver feeds them, it has avoided something unpleasant, therefore, it is negative reinforcement for the caregiver (every time the baby wants food, it will cry).

59
Q

What is drive reduction?

A
  • Hunger is a primary drive = eating reduces the innate huger drive.
  • Attachment is a secondary drive = attachment to a food bearing caregiver satisfies the primary drive for food.
60
Q

What are the evaluation points of the learning theory?

A

:( Animal studies counter this explanation.
:( Human research counters this explanation.
:( Theory ignores other factors linked with attachment.
:) Some elements of conditioning can explain attachment, but not in relation to feeding.

61
Q

How do animal studies counter the learning theory?

A
  1. Lorenz’s geese = maintained attachment, regardless of who fed them.
  2. Harlow’s monkeys = attached to ‘cloth’ mother who didn’t feed them.
62
Q

How does human research counter the learning theory?

A

Schaffer and Emerson = babies formed specific attachments to those who responded to their interactions, not who fed them.

63
Q

What other factors doe the learning theory ignore?

A

Reciprocity and interactional synchrony = these are involved in quality attachment –> not primarily through feeing.

64
Q

What is a strength of the learning theory’s explanation?

A
  • Some elements of conditioning could still be involved in attachment = associations between primary caregiver and comfort, but not associations of food and caregiver).
65
Q

How does Bowlby take an evolutionary approach to attachment?

A
  • Attachment is innate that gives a survival advantage.

- It evolved to ensure the safety of animals for years.

66
Q

What is misscried?

A 
Monotropy.
Innate.
Survival.
Social releasers.
Critical period.
Reciprocity.
Internal working model (IWM).
Evolutionary.
Dire.
67
Q

What is monotropy?

A

He places emphasis on the child’s attachment to one caregiver.

  • The attachment is different from others and more important.
68
Q

What does Bowlby say about the more time spent with the mother-figure is beneficial?

A

There are 2 reasons for this:

1) Law of continuity = the more constant child care, the better quality attachment.
2) Law of accumulated separation = the effects of every separation add up.

69
Q

What are social releasers?

A
  • A set of innate ‘cute’ behaviours that encourage attention from adults.
  • These make adults feel love towards the baby and encourages reciprocity.
70
Q

What is the critical period for humans?

A

2.5 years = over wise no attachment is formed and this can result in psychological harm.

71
Q

What is an internal working model (IWM)?

A

A mental representation of the relationship with the primary attachment figure - this serves as a ‘template’ for what future relationships are like.

  • e.g. if they don’t cuddle the infant, they may think its normal not to show affection.
72
Q

What are the evaluations of Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment?

A

:( Evidence for monotropy is mixed.
:) Evidence support for social releasers.
:) Evidence support for IWM.
:( Monotropy is socially sensitive.

73
Q

How is evidence for monotropy mixed?

A
  • Schaffer and Emerson = babies made an attachment, then a minority made multiple attachments –> contradicts Bowlby’s theory (monotropic attachment is unique).
74
Q

What evidence support is there for social releasers?

A
  • Brazelton et al. (1975) = instructed primary attachment figures to ignore their babies social releasers.
  • Found babies showed some distress –> supporting the significance of social releasers in initiating social interactions.
75
Q

What evidence support is there for IWM?

A
  • Bailey et al. (2007) = studied 99 mothers;
  • Those with poor attachments to own parents were more likely to have a poorly attached 1 year old –> IWM passes through the family.
76
Q

Why is monotropy socially sensitive?

A
  • Law of accumulation = states time away from attachment figure = poor quality attachment;
  • So mothers are blamed for anything that happens to their child, not Bowlby’s intention.
77
Q

Who developed the strange situation?

A

Ainsworth (1969).

78
Q

What is the strange situation?

A

A method to assess the quality of a child’s attachment to a caregiver.

79
Q

What type of methodology does Ainsworth use?

A

Controlled observation = in a lab with a 2-way mirror so psychologists can observe an infants behaviour.

80
Q

What are the 5 categories used to judge attachment quality?

A

1) Proximity seeking.
2) Exploration + secure base behaviour.
3) Stranger anxiety.
4) Separation anxiety.
5) Response to reunion with the caregiver after separation for a short period of time.

81
Q

What ‘episodes’ does Ainsworth’s procedures have?

A

1) Child is encouraged to explore by caregiver.
2) Stranger enters and talks to caregiver.
3) Caregiver leaves.
4) Caregiver returns, stranger leaves.
5) Caregiver leaves the child alone.
6) Stranger returns.
7) Caregiver returns.

82
Q

What are the main types of attachment that Ainsworth found?

A

1) Secure attachment (60-75% of British toddlers).
2) Insecure-avoidant (20-25% of British toddlers).
3) Insecure-resistant (3% of British toddlers).

83
Q

What are the behaviours observed in secure attachments?

A
  • Happy to explore, but seeks proximity.
  • Moderate separation/stranger anxiety.
  • Requires and accepts comfort from caregiver on reunion.
84
Q

What are the behaviours observe in insecure-avoidant attachments?

A
  • Explores freely; doesn’t seek proximity.
  • Little to no separation/stranger anxiety.
  • Doesn’t require comfort on reunion.
85
Q

What are the behaviours observed in insecure-resistant attachments?

A
  • Explores less; seeking greater proximity.
  • Considerable separation/stranger anxiety.
  • Resists comfort at reunion.
86
Q

What was the percentage of infants in each category of attachment?

A
  1. Secure = 66%
  2. Insecure-avoidant = 22%
  3. Insecure-resistant = 12%
87
Q

What are the evaluations of Ainsworth’s strange situation?

A 
\:) Good external validity.
\:( Predictive validity.
\:) Good inter-rater reliability.
\:( Culturally biased.
\:( There may be other attachment types.
88
Q

How is there good external validity in Ainsworth’s study?

A

Natural observation = children were observed by their reaction to separation/strangers from behind a reflective mirror, therefore, they wouldn’t show demand characteristics either.

89
Q

How is the validity of attachment types predictable in the Strange Situation?

A

Attachment type predicts later development;

  • For example, secure babies typically have greater success at school, whereas, insecure-resistant is associated with the worst outcomes.
90
Q

How does Strange Situation show good inter-rather reliability?

A

Bick et al. (2012) = found 94% agreement of attachment type in one team.

  • Shows attachment types identified in Strange Situation doesn’t depend on who’s observing the infants.
91
Q

How is Strange Situation culturally biased?

A

Test may not have the same meaning outside of the USA.

  • Takahashi (1990) = Japanese mothers rarely leave their children so may show high levels of separation anxiety.
92
Q

What 2 studies show cultural variations in attachment?

A

1) . Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) =
- meta-analysis of Strange Situation attachment studies.
2) . Simonelli et al. (2014) =
- Strange Situation in Italy.

93
Q

What was Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s procedures?

A
  • 32 studies of Strange Situation , in 8 countries –> 1,990 children in total.
  • looked at the proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant.
94
Q

What was Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s findings?

A

1) . Secure attachment =
- most common.
- 50% in China.
- 75% in Britain.
2) . Individualistic cultures =
- insecure-resistant was similar.
3) . Collectivist cultures =
- insecure-resistant increased (25%).
- insecure-avoidant reduced.
- shows cultural differences in insecure attachments

95
Q

What was Simonelli et al. procedures?

A
  • Assessed 76 12-month olds using Strange Situation.
  • Compared the results to previous studies in Italy.
  • Mothers education levels varied.
96
Q

What did Simonelli et al. find?

A
  • 50% secure, 36% insecure-avoidant.
  • Lower rates of secure attachment.
  • Due to cultural change (mothers working longer hours).
97
Q

What are the evaluations of the cultural variations in attachment?

A

:) Meta-analysis –> large samples =

  • Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s large sample increases internal validity.

:( Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s sample is between countries, not cultures =

  • within countries there are different cultures, sample needs to be specified.

:( Strange Situation may be Western biased =

-designed by an American, imposed etic.

:( Temperament may be a CV =

  • Kagan (1982) suggests temperament influences behaviour in the Strange Situation, not quality of attachment.
98
Q

What is Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

Continued emotional care from mother is necessary for normal emotional and intellectual development.

99
Q

What can happen if a child is separated from the mother?

A

Maternal deprivation =

  • losing emotional care as a result of separation.
  • separation doesn’t always cause deprivation.
100
Q

What is the critical period of maternal deprivation?

A

First 30 months =

  • if they are separated for an extended time during this period, it can result in psychological harm (inevitable).
101
Q

What did Goldfarb find in children with maternal deprivation?

A

Lower IQ’s in children from institutions than fostered children.

  • low IQ and mental retardation is a result of separation during the critical period.
102
Q

What impact does maternal deprivation have on emotional development?

A

Can develop affectionless psychopathy =

  • inability to experience guilt or strong emotions for others.
  • is associated with criminality.
  • prevents them forming normal relationships.
103
Q

What are the procedures of the 44 thieves study?

A
  • 44 accused thieves interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy.
  • families were also interviewed to establish prolonged separation from mothers.
104
Q

What did Bowlby find in his 44 thieves study?

A
  • 14 = affectionless psychopathy (12 experienced prolonged separation during critical period).
  • 5 of the remaining 30 = had experienced separation.
  • suggests prolonged separation caused affectionless psychopathy.
105
Q

What are the evaluation of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

:) Animal studies have demonstrated maternal deprivation =

  • Levy et al. separated rats from mothers for 1 day = permanent effect on social development.

:( Sources of evidence is flawed =

  • Goldfarb = studied war orphans, more likely to cause difficulties than separation.
  • children in institutions are deprived of all care, not just maternal.

:( More of a sensitive period =

  • Koluchova (Czech twins), fully recovered with care from adults.

:( Counter-evidence of Bowlby’s study =

  • Lewis replicated his study and found prolonged separation didn’t predict criminality.
106
Q

What are the 2 effects of institutionalisation?

A

1) . Disinhibited attachment =
- equally friendly to well-known people and strangers.
2) . Damage to intellectual development =
- mental retardation.
- not so bad if adopted before 6 months old.

107
Q

Who conducted a study into Romanian orphanages?

A

Rutter et al. (2011)

108
Q

How many orphanages are in Rutter’s study?

A

165 =

  • who experienced poor conditions before being adopted in Britain.
109
Q

What was Rutter’s procedures?

A
  • Longitudinal study.
  • To see the extent to which good care can make up for poor experiences in institutions.
  • Physical, cognitive and emotional development assessed at 4, 6, 11 and 15 years.
  • Control group = 52 adopted British children.
110
Q

What did Rutter find?

A
  • 50% = mental retardation.
  • Age 11 = recovery related to age of adoption.
    1) . Adopted before 6 months = IQ of 102.
    2) . Adopted between 6 months and 2 years = IQ of 86.
    3) . Adopted after 2 years = IQ of 77.
111
Q

What did Rutter find about disinhibited attachment?

A

Related to age of adoption =

  • Apparent in those adopted after 6 months old.
  • Not in those adopted before 6 months old.
112
Q

What are the evaluations of the Romanian orphanage study?

A

:) Important practical application =

  • Langton –> resulted in improvements of children in care.
  • low no. of caregivers, avoids disinhibited attachments.

:) Fewer CV than other research =

  • studies on institutionalised children before = they were affected by multiple factors (CV).

:( Issues of generalisability =

  • these conditions can’t be generalised to normal institutions (they had poor standards of care).

:( Children weren’t randomly allocated to conditions =

  • those adopted may have been more social, so a CV.
113
Q

What does ‘influence of early attachment on later relationships’ consist of?

A

1) . Internal working model.

2) . Hazan and Shaver (1987) love quiz.

114
Q

What is an internal working model?

A

Template for future relationships =

  • good first experience of attachment =

seek loving relationships in future due to good expectations.

  • bad first experience of attachment =

may struggle to form relationships due to bad expectations.

115
Q

What attachment type forms the best relationships?

A

Securely attached infants =

  • Kerns (1994) = form the best quality childhood friendships.
  • Myron-Wilson and Smith (1998) = less likely to be involved in bullying.
116
Q

How do internal working models affect parenting?

A

People base their parenting style of IWM =

  • so pass on attachment types through generations.
117
Q

What is Hazan and Shaver’s procedures?

A

Analysed 620 replies to ‘love quiz’.

118
Q

What 3 different aspects of relationships did the ‘love quiz’ assess?

A

1) . Respondents current and most important relationship.
2) . General love experiences.
3) . Attachment type.

119
Q

What did Hazan and Shaver find?

A
  • 56% = securely attached (good, longer-lasting relationships).
  • 25% = insecure-avoidant (jealous, fear intimacy).
  • 19% = insecure-resistant (jealous, fear intimacy).
120
Q

What are the evaluations of the influence of early attachment of later relationships?

A

:( Mixed evidence whether attachment in infancy affects future attachment types =

  • Zimmerman = little difference between quality of infant and adolescent attachment.

:( Studies have validity issues =

  • questionnaires and interviews lack validity (depend on respondent’s honesty and their view on relationships).

:( Studies indicate association, but not causation =

  • alternative explanations for continuity = temperament affects attachment type and quality of future relationships.

:( Influence of infant attachment on future relationships is exaggerated =

  • too deterministic = you aren’t doomed in the future if you have shit child attachments.

Psychology - Paper 1 (4 decks)

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