Memory Flashcards
What are the different stores in STM and LTM?
- Coding.
- Capacity.
- Duration.
What is the coding of STM and LTM?
Baddeley (1966)=
- STM = acoustically dissimilar are easier to remember (pit, few) - words that sound dissimilar.
- LTM = semantically dissimilar are easier to remember (good, hot) - words that have dissimilar meanings.
What is the capacity of STM and LTM?
Miller (1956) =
- STM (7+/-2 items) = he noted things come in 7’s.
- LTM = unlimited.
What is chunking?
Miller = span of STM can be improved by chunking =
- Grouping sets of digits/letters to make meaningful units.
What is the duration of STM?
Peterson + Peterson (1959) =
- 18 seconds = 24 students given consonant syllables (YGC) and 3-digit numbers to count backwards from for 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 + 18 seconds.
- Average recall for 18 seconds was about 3% - STM without rehearsal is no more than 18 seconds.
What is the duration of LTM?
Bahrick et al. (1975) =
- At least 48 seconds = participants asked if they recognise pictures from school yearbook (recognition test) and to list people from class (free recall test).
- Participants tested 48 years after graduation were about 70% accurate in photo recall but worse in free recall.
Summarise coding, capacity and duration of STM and LTM.
1) STM
- capacity = 7+/-2 items (Miller).
- coding = acoustic (Baddeley).
- duration = 18 seconds (Peterson + Peterson).
2) LTM =
- capacity = infinite.
- coding = semantic (Baddeley).
- duration = at least 48 years (Bahrick).
Evaluate Baddeley’s study into coding?
- Used artificial material =
Words used weren’t meaningful to participants, but if they were, semantic coding may have been used for STM.
Limited application = can’t generalise findings.
What is a limitation of Miller’s study into the capacity of STM?
Cowan (2001) = reviewed other research and concluded that capacity was only about 4 chunks –> lower end of Miller’s estimate is more accurate.
- Show Miller may have overestimated the capacity of STM.
What is a limitation of Peter + Peterson’s study into the duration of STM?
Trying to remember meaningless consonant syllables doesn’t reflect real-life (lacking external validity).
- However, phone numbers are quite meaningless.
What is a strength of Baddeley’s study into the duration of LTM?
- High external validity = real-life meaningful memories (e.g. peoples faces).
Recall with meaningless pictures was lower (Shephard 1967).
What are the 2 theoretical models of memory?
1) . Multi-store model (MSM).
2) . Working memory model (WMM).
Who developed the MSM?
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968).
What is the order of the stores in the MSM?
Stimuli –> Sensory register –> STM –> LTM.
How many stores are there in the sensory register?
5 = for each sense.
What is the duration, capacity and coding of the sensory register?
1) . Duration = less than 1/2 second.
2) . Capacity = high (over 100 million cells in one eye).
3) . Coding = depends on the sense.
How does information transfer from the sensory register to STM?
Needs attention = not everything in the SR passes into STM.
What is the duration, capacity and coding of STM?
1) . Duration = 18-30 seconds.
2) . Capacity = 5-9 items before some forgetting occurs.
3) . Coding = acoustic.
How is information transferred from STM to LTM?
Maintenance rehearsal =
- Going over material for long enough will pass it into LTM.
- Leads to prolonged rehearsal.
What is the duration, capacity and coding of LTM?
1) . Duration = potentially up to a lifetime.
2) . Capacity = potentially unlimited.
3) . Coding = semantic (tend to be in terms of meaning).
How is information transferred from LTM to STM?
Retrieval =
- Have to think about it again.
What are the evaluations of the MSM?
:) Research support.
:( Evidence suggests there are more than one types of STM.
:( It only explains one type of rehearsal.
:( Research studies supporting MSM use artificial materials.
:( MSM oversimplifies LTM.
What research supports the MSM?
Baddeley (1966) = found we mix up words that SOUND SIMILAR in STM and words that have SIMILAR MEANINGS in LTM.
- Supports acoustic (STM) and semantic (LTM) coding, and that the stores are separate.
What evidence suggests there is more than one type of STM?
Shallow and Warrington (1970) studied KF = had amnesia –> his STM for digits was poor when listening, but better when he read them himself.
- This suggests a store for visual and auditory –> WMM is a better explanation.
How is the MSM criticised for only explaining one type of rehearsal?
Craik and Watkins (1973) = doesn’t explain elaborative rehearsal (needed to keep info in LTM) –> this occurs when you link info to existing knowledge, or process it.
- MSM cant explain this.
How does the MSM lack external validity?
Researchers used artificial material =
- Peterson + Peterson asked participants to remember consonant syllables with no meanings, and these don’t reflect everyday life –> people remember useful things (e.g. faces).
How does the MSM oversimplify LTM?
Research suggests that LTM isn’t a unitary store = we have semantic and episodic memories, and MSM doesn’t explain this.
What are the different types of LTM?
1) . Episodic memory.
2) . Semantic memory.
3) . Procedural memory.
What is episodic memory?
- Diary of events of our lives = e.g. eating breakfast.
- Complex procedures = can remember when/where (the stamp) they happened.
- Conscious effort needed to recall these memories.
What is semantic memory?
- Encyclopaedia/ dictionary = our knowledge of the world (e.g. taste of an orange, meaning of words, etc).
- Not complex = less personal and more about knowledges we all share (not time-stamped).
What is procedural memory?
- Actions and skills = memory of how we do things (e.g. driving a car).
- Unconscious recall = hard to explain to others because they are unconsciously recalled.
What are the evaluations of the different types of LTM?
:) Research support for episodic memory.
:) Support from brain scan studies.
:) Real-life application.
:( Problems with clinical evidence.
What supporting research is there for episodic memory?
- Case studies (HM + Clive Wearing) =
Difficulty recalling past events, but semantic memory was unaffected (HM could explain the concept of ‘dog’).
- Supports different stores in LTM.
What do brain scans show about different LTM stores?
Tulving et al. (1994) =
Had participants perform various tasks whilst being scanned with a PET scanner.
- Found semantic in left prefrontal cortex, and episodic in right prefrontal cortex –> showing different stores of LTM.
What real-life application has different types of LTM go?
Belleville et al. (2006) =
Found episodic memories can be improved in older people, and this is possible by identifying different types of LTM.
What is a limitation of the different types of LTM?
- Evidence is based on clinical cases =
Lack of control, small samples and you cant generalise from case studies to determine the exact nature of LTM.
Who developed the WMM?
Baddeley and Hitch (1974).
What part of the mind is the WMM concerned with?
STM =
- when it is active (e.g. doing a task).
What are the different slave systems?
1). Central executive (CE) =
monitors info and allocates slave systems.
2). Phonological loop (PL) =
auditory info.
- Phonological store = words you hear.
- Articulatory process = maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds to keep in STM).
3) . Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) =
stores visual and spatial info (how many windows in a house).
What did Logie (1995) subdivide the VSS into?
- Visual cache =
stores visual data.
- Inner scribe =
records arrangement of objects in visual field.
Who introduced the episodic buffer (EB)?
Baddeley (2000).
What is the episodic buffer?
- Integrates all other slave systems.
- Maintains sense of time (episodic).
- Links to LTM.
What are the evaluations of of the WMM?
:) KF supports STM stores =
poor ability for verbal, but good visual.
:) Dual task performance studies support the VSS =
more difficulty doing 2 visual/verbal, than one of either.
:) Supported by brain scanning studies =
prefrontal cortex lit up more as tasks got difficult (CE has to work harder).
:( Lack of clarity over the CE =
doesn’t explain a lot, could be separate stores.
What are the 2 explanations for forgetting?
1) . Interference.
2) . Retrieval failure.
What is interference?
When 2 pieces of info are in conflict =
- forgetting is due to inability to access memories even though they are available.
What are the 2 types of interference?
1) . Proactive =
- old disrupts new.
- e.g. teacher learns new names in the past = can’t remember names of current students.
2) . Retroactive =
- new disrupts old.
- e.g. teacher learns new names = can’t remember names of current students.
When is interference worse?
When memories are similar.
Who conducted a study to support the interference theory?
McGeoch and McDonald (1931) = effects of similarity.
What were McGeoch and McDonald’s procedures?
1) . Participants had to remember a list of words (100% accurately).
2) . Then given in a new list.
How did the new list of words in McGeoch and McDonald’s study vary?
In similarity to the old one =
1) . synonyms –> same meanings.
2) . antonyms –> opposite meanings.
3) . unrelated.
4) . nonsense syllables.
5) . 3-digit numbers.
6) . no new list (control condition).
What was McGeoch and McDonald’s findings?
Most similar (synonyms) = worst recall.
- recall increased on antonyms and 3-digit numbers.
- shows interference strongest when material is similar
What are the evaluations of the interference theory?
:) Evidence from lab studies =
all show interference causes LTM forgetting.
:) Support from real-life studies =
Baddeley and Hitch =
- asked rugby players to recall games in season, week-by-week.
- most important was number of games played since recall, not how long ago it was.
:( Research uses artificial material =
word lists are different from everyday life.
:( Short time periods of learning in lab studies =
usually takes longer than 20 minutes to learn and recall words, doesn’t reflect everyday life.
What is retrieval failure a result of?
Lack of cues =
- if associated cues aren’t available, then you can’t access the memory (information).
What is encoding specificity principle (ESP)?
Tulving (1983) =
- if retrieval cue is similar to learned cue, the better the cue works at retrieving the information.
Can cues be linked meaningfully?
Yes, can be linked to meaningful information =
- the cue of STM can make you think of loads of info about STM.
What is context-dependent forgetting?
Memory retrieval is dependent on external/environmental cues =
- e.g. the weather or a place.
What is state-dependent forgetting?
Memory retrieval is dependent on internal/state of mind cues =
- e.g. feeling upset or being drunk.
Who conducted a study to support retrieval failure?
Godden and Baddeley (1975) –> context-dependent forgetting.
What was Godden and Baddeley’s procedures?
Deep-sea divers learned word lists and asked to recall them.
What were the different groups in Godden and Baddeley’s study?
1) . Learn on land - recall on land.
2) . Learn on land - recall underwater.
3) . Learn underwater - recall on land.
4) . Learn underwater - recall underwater.
What was Godden and Baddeley’s findings?
When learning and recall didn’t match =
- recall was 40% lower than when they did match.
- this was due to lack of cues (external), leading to retrieval failure.
What are the evaluations of retrieval failure?
:) Supporting evidence =
- Godden and Baddeley’s research.
- Eyseneck says its the main forgetting in LTM.
:) Context-related cues have real-life application =
people often report these experiences (forgetting when downstairs, remembering upstairs).
:( Context effects aren’t as strong in real-life =
contexts have to be very different for retrieval failure.
:( ESP cannot be tested =
can’t actually see whether the cue has been encoded or not.
What are the 3 different types of EWT topics?
1) . Misleading question.
2) . Anxiety.
3) . Cognitive interview (CI).
What is a leading question?
Wording of a question which influences the ETW response.
What are the 2 explanations of leading questions affecting EWT?
1). Repsonse-bias =
wording question =
- no affect on memory.
- influences answer.
2) . Substitution =
wording of a question =
- affects memory.
- distorts accuracy, and answer.
What study supports the leading question theory?
Loftus and Palmer (1974) =
- car accident.
What was Loftus and Palmer’s procedures?
- 45 participants (students).
- watched a clip of a car accident.
- asked to judge the speed.
- question asked ranged from; hit, contacted, bumped, collided or smashed.
What was Loftus and Palmer’s findings?
Contacted =
- mean estimated speed of 31.8 mph.
Smashed =
- 40.5 mph.
What are the 2 types of post-event discussion (PED) that can distort memory?
1). Memory contamination =
witnesses discuss event, and mix information from other witnesses with their own memories.
2). Memory conformity =
going along with other witnesses to win social approval, feeling their are right.
What study supports post-event discussion distorts memory?
Gabbert et al. (2003) =
- discussing a video of a crime.
What were Gabbert et al. procedures?
- Paired P. watched the same film of a crime.
- But each P. saw elements that others didn’t.
- Both discussed the video, before completing a test of recall.
What did Gabbert et al. find?
- 71% recalled aspects they didn’t see, they picked this up from the PED.
- Control group (no discussion) = no errors.
What are the evaluations of misleading information in EWT?
:) Real-life application =
police officers are careful on phrasing questions to avoid errors.
:( Loftus and Palmer use artificial materials =
- film clips are different from real-life.
- Yuille and Cutshell –> witnesses to armed robbery had accurate recall 4 months later.
:( Individual differences in accuracy of EWT =
Anastasi and Rhodes found older people are worse.
:( Lab studies of EWT suffer demand characteristics =
P. may say they saw something (e.g. a blue car) as they think they are being helpful.
What are the 2 studies into anxiety of EWT?
1) . Johnson and Scott (1976) =
- anxiety has a negative effect.
2) . Yuille and Cutshall (1986) =
- anxiety has a positive effect.
What was Johnson and Scott’s procedures?
- P. sat in a waiting room to take part in a lab study.
- They heard an argument in the next room.
What were the 2 conditions in Johnson and Scott’s study?
1). Low-anxiety condition =
man walked through waiting room with a pen with grease on his hands.
2) . High-anxiety condition =
- sound of breaking glass.
- man with paper knife covered in blood.
What was Johnson and Scott’s findings?
- 49% of low-anxiety = able to identify him.
- 33% of high-anxiety group.
- Focused on weapon rather than the attacker due to anxiety.
What is a limitation of Johnson and Scott’s study?
It may test surprise not anxiety =
- they may focus on a weapon due to surprise, not anxiety.
- Pickel = found EWT accuracy poorer with unusual items (raw chicken).
What was Yuille and Cutshall’s procedures?
- 13 witnesses of a real crime (gun shop owner shot dead a thief) agreed to take part.
- Interviews from 4-5 months after incident were compared to interviews taken at the time of the shooting.
- They rated how stressful they felt.
What was Yuille and Cutshall’s findings?
Participants with highest stress were very accurate 4-5 months after the incident (88% compared with 75% of low stressed group).
What does Yerkes and Dodson argue about performance and stress?
It’s curvilinear =
- Medium arousal/stress = peak performance (Yerkes-Dodson Law).
How does the Yerkes-Dodson Law contradict findings of anxiety in EWT accuracy?
1) . Johnson and Scott =
- low anxiety = best recall, not supported by Yerkes-Dodson Law.
2) . Yuille and Cutshall =
- high stress = best recall, also opposite of Yerkes-Dodson Law.
What did Deffenbacher (1983) propose about anxiety?
Low levels = low recall.
- recall increases as anxiety does, but only up to a certain point (optimal).
- too much anxiety = low recall.
What are the evaluations of anxiety of EWT?
:( Field studies lack control of variables =
interviewing witnesses after the event allows many things to happen in the meantime (PED).
:( Ethical issues in research =
creating anxiety in P. can be unethical, but studies are beneficial.
:( Inverted-U explanation is too simplistic =
anxiety is measured via cognitive, emotional and behavioural, but this explanation ignores emotional experiences of witnesses.
What is cognitive interviews (CI) based on?
Psychological understanding of memory.
Who says EWT could be improved if police use techniques based on how memory works?
Fisher and Geiselman (1992).
Why are they called cognitive interviews?
Because it identifies the foundation of cognitive psychology.
- Allows Rapport with interviewee.
What are the 5 stages of CI?
1). Report everything =
even trivial info, it may trigger other memories.
2). Reinstate the context =
context-dependent forgetting = imagine the original crime scene (cues may trigger recall).
3). Reverse the order =
recalled in a different order to prevent expectations of how the event must have happened.
4). Change perspective =
recall incident from another persons perspective, this prevents the influence of schemas.
5). Enhanced cognitive interview.
What is an enhanced cognitive interview?
Fisher et al. (1987) =
additional aspects of the CI =
- knowing when to establish eye contact.
- reduce EW anxiety.
- minimise distractions.
- getting the EW to speak slowly.
- ask open-ended questions.
What are the evaluations of CI?
:) Some elements are useful =
- each individual element was equally valuable.
- but using 2 together produced better recall.
:) Support for the effectiveness of enhanced CI =
- Kohnken at al. (1999) - meta-analysis (50 studies).
- enhanced CI consistently more correct info.
:( CI is time-consuming =
takes longer than standard interviews to establish rapport, so its unlikely to be used.
:( Unreliable research due to variations of the CI =
difficult to draw conclusions due to researchers and police using their own, different methods of the CI.
