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Psychology - Paper 1 > Memory > Flashcards

Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the different stores in STM and LTM?

A
  1. Coding.
  2. Capacity.
  3. Duration.
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2
Q

What is the coding of STM and LTM?

A

Baddeley (1966)=

  • STM = acoustically dissimilar are easier to remember (pit, few) - words that sound dissimilar.
  • LTM = semantically dissimilar are easier to remember (good, hot) - words that have dissimilar meanings.
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3
Q

What is the capacity of STM and LTM?

A

Miller (1956) =

  • STM (7+/-2 items) = he noted things come in 7’s.
  • LTM = unlimited.
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4
Q

What is chunking?

A

Miller = span of STM can be improved by chunking =

  • Grouping sets of digits/letters to make meaningful units.
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5
Q

What is the duration of STM?

A

Peterson + Peterson (1959) =

  • 18 seconds = 24 students given consonant syllables (YGC) and 3-digit numbers to count backwards from for 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 + 18 seconds.
  • Average recall for 18 seconds was about 3% - STM without rehearsal is no more than 18 seconds.
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6
Q

What is the duration of LTM?

A

Bahrick et al. (1975) =

  • At least 48 seconds = participants asked if they recognise pictures from school yearbook (recognition test) and to list people from class (free recall test).
  • Participants tested 48 years after graduation were about 70% accurate in photo recall but worse in free recall.
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7
Q

Summarise coding, capacity and duration of STM and LTM.

A

1) STM
- capacity = 7+/-2 items (Miller).
- coding = acoustic (Baddeley).
- duration = 18 seconds (Peterson + Peterson).

2) LTM =
- capacity = infinite.
- coding = semantic (Baddeley).
- duration = at least 48 years (Bahrick).

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8
Q

Evaluate Baddeley’s study into coding?

A
  • Used artificial material =

Words used weren’t meaningful to participants, but if they were, semantic coding may have been used for STM.

Limited application = can’t generalise findings.

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9
Q

What is a limitation of Miller’s study into the capacity of STM?

A

Cowan (2001) = reviewed other research and concluded that capacity was only about 4 chunks –> lower end of Miller’s estimate is more accurate.

  • Show Miller may have overestimated the capacity of STM.
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10
Q

What is a limitation of Peter + Peterson’s study into the duration of STM?

A

Trying to remember meaningless consonant syllables doesn’t reflect real-life (lacking external validity).

  • However, phone numbers are quite meaningless.
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11
Q

What is a strength of Baddeley’s study into the duration of LTM?

A
  • High external validity = real-life meaningful memories (e.g. peoples faces).

Recall with meaningless pictures was lower (Shephard 1967).

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12
Q

What are the 2 theoretical models of memory?

A

1) . Multi-store model (MSM).

2) . Working memory model (WMM).

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13
Q

Who developed the MSM?

A

Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968).

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14
Q

What is the order of the stores in the MSM?

A

Stimuli –> Sensory register –> STM –> LTM.

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15
Q

How many stores are there in the sensory register?

A

5 = for each sense.

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16
Q

What is the duration, capacity and coding of the sensory register?

A

1) . Duration = less than 1/2 second.
2) . Capacity = high (over 100 million cells in one eye).
3) . Coding = depends on the sense.

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17
Q

How does information transfer from the sensory register to STM?

A

Needs attention = not everything in the SR passes into STM.

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18
Q

What is the duration, capacity and coding of STM?

A

1) . Duration = 18-30 seconds.
2) . Capacity = 5-9 items before some forgetting occurs.
3) . Coding = acoustic.

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19
Q

How is information transferred from STM to LTM?

A

Maintenance rehearsal =

  • Going over material for long enough will pass it into LTM.
  • Leads to prolonged rehearsal.
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20
Q

What is the duration, capacity and coding of LTM?

A

1) . Duration = potentially up to a lifetime.
2) . Capacity = potentially unlimited.
3) . Coding = semantic (tend to be in terms of meaning).

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21
Q

How is information transferred from LTM to STM?

A

Retrieval =

  • Have to think about it again.
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22
Q

What are the evaluations of the MSM?

A

:) Research support.
:( Evidence suggests there are more than one types of STM.
:( It only explains one type of rehearsal.
:( Research studies supporting MSM use artificial materials.
:( MSM oversimplifies LTM.

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23
Q

What research supports the MSM?

A

Baddeley (1966) = found we mix up words that SOUND SIMILAR in STM and words that have SIMILAR MEANINGS in LTM.

  • Supports acoustic (STM) and semantic (LTM) coding, and that the stores are separate.
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24
Q

What evidence suggests there is more than one type of STM?

A

Shallow and Warrington (1970) studied KF = had amnesia –> his STM for digits was poor when listening, but better when he read them himself.

  • This suggests a store for visual and auditory –> WMM is a better explanation.
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25
Q

How is the MSM criticised for only explaining one type of rehearsal?

A

Craik and Watkins (1973) = doesn’t explain elaborative rehearsal (needed to keep info in LTM) –> this occurs when you link info to existing knowledge, or process it.

  • MSM cant explain this.
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26
Q

How does the MSM lack external validity?

A

Researchers used artificial material =

  • Peterson + Peterson asked participants to remember consonant syllables with no meanings, and these don’t reflect everyday life –> people remember useful things (e.g. faces).
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27
Q

How does the MSM oversimplify LTM?

A

Research suggests that LTM isn’t a unitary store = we have semantic and episodic memories, and MSM doesn’t explain this.

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28
Q

What are the different types of LTM?

A

1) . Episodic memory.
2) . Semantic memory.
3) . Procedural memory.

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29
Q

What is episodic memory?

A
  • Diary of events of our lives = e.g. eating breakfast.
  • Complex procedures = can remember when/where (the stamp) they happened.
  • Conscious effort needed to recall these memories.
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30
Q

What is semantic memory?

A
  • Encyclopaedia/ dictionary = our knowledge of the world (e.g. taste of an orange, meaning of words, etc).
  • Not complex = less personal and more about knowledges we all share (not time-stamped).
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31
Q

What is procedural memory?

A
  • Actions and skills = memory of how we do things (e.g. driving a car).
  • Unconscious recall = hard to explain to others because they are unconsciously recalled.
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32
Q

What are the evaluations of the different types of LTM?

A

:) Research support for episodic memory.
:) Support from brain scan studies.
:) Real-life application.
:( Problems with clinical evidence.

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33
Q

What supporting research is there for episodic memory?

A
  • Case studies (HM + Clive Wearing) =

Difficulty recalling past events, but semantic memory was unaffected (HM could explain the concept of ‘dog’).

  • Supports different stores in LTM.
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34
Q

What do brain scans show about different LTM stores?

A

Tulving et al. (1994) =

Had participants perform various tasks whilst being scanned with a PET scanner.

  • Found semantic in left prefrontal cortex, and episodic in right prefrontal cortex –> showing different stores of LTM.
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35
Q

What real-life application has different types of LTM go?

A

Belleville et al. (2006) =

Found episodic memories can be improved in older people, and this is possible by identifying different types of LTM.

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36
Q

What is a limitation of the different types of LTM?

A
  • Evidence is based on clinical cases =

Lack of control, small samples and you cant generalise from case studies to determine the exact nature of LTM.

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37
Q

Who developed the WMM?

A

Baddeley and Hitch (1974).

38
Q

What part of the mind is the WMM concerned with?

A

STM =

  • when it is active (e.g. doing a task).
39
Q

What are the different slave systems?

A

1). Central executive (CE) =

monitors info and allocates slave systems.

2). Phonological loop (PL) =

auditory info.

  • Phonological store = words you hear.
  • Articulatory process = maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds to keep in STM).
    3) . Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) =

stores visual and spatial info (how many windows in a house).

40
Q

What did Logie (1995) subdivide the VSS into?

A
  • Visual cache =

stores visual data.

  • Inner scribe =

records arrangement of objects in visual field.

41
Q

Who introduced the episodic buffer (EB)?

A

Baddeley (2000).

42
Q

What is the episodic buffer?

A
  • Integrates all other slave systems.
  • Maintains sense of time (episodic).
  • Links to LTM.
43
Q

What are the evaluations of of the WMM?

A

:) KF supports STM stores =

poor ability for verbal, but good visual.

:) Dual task performance studies support the VSS =

more difficulty doing 2 visual/verbal, than one of either.

:) Supported by brain scanning studies =

prefrontal cortex lit up more as tasks got difficult (CE has to work harder).

:( Lack of clarity over the CE =

doesn’t explain a lot, could be separate stores.

44
Q

What are the 2 explanations for forgetting?

A

1) . Interference.

2) . Retrieval failure.

45
Q

What is interference?

A

When 2 pieces of info are in conflict =

  • forgetting is due to inability to access memories even though they are available.
46
Q

What are the 2 types of interference?

A

1) . Proactive =
- old disrupts new.
- e.g. teacher learns new names in the past = can’t remember names of current students.
2) . Retroactive =
- new disrupts old.
- e.g. teacher learns new names = can’t remember names of current students.

47
Q

When is interference worse?

A

When memories are similar.

48
Q

Who conducted a study to support the interference theory?

A

McGeoch and McDonald (1931) = effects of similarity.

49
Q

What were McGeoch and McDonald’s procedures?

A

1) . Participants had to remember a list of words (100% accurately).
2) . Then given in a new list.

50
Q

How did the new list of words in McGeoch and McDonald’s study vary?

A

In similarity to the old one =

1) . synonyms –> same meanings.
2) . antonyms –> opposite meanings.
3) . unrelated.
4) . nonsense syllables.
5) . 3-digit numbers.
6) . no new list (control condition).

51
Q

What was McGeoch and McDonald’s findings?

A

Most similar (synonyms) = worst recall.

  • recall increased on antonyms and 3-digit numbers.
  • shows interference strongest when material is similar
52
Q

What are the evaluations of the interference theory?

A

:) Evidence from lab studies =

all show interference causes LTM forgetting.

:) Support from real-life studies =

Baddeley and Hitch =

  • asked rugby players to recall games in season, week-by-week.
  • most important was number of games played since recall, not how long ago it was.

:( Research uses artificial material =

word lists are different from everyday life.

:( Short time periods of learning in lab studies =

usually takes longer than 20 minutes to learn and recall words, doesn’t reflect everyday life.

53
Q

What is retrieval failure a result of?

A

Lack of cues =

  • if associated cues aren’t available, then you can’t access the memory (information).
54
Q

What is encoding specificity principle (ESP)?

A

Tulving (1983) =

  • if retrieval cue is similar to learned cue, the better the cue works at retrieving the information.
55
Q

Can cues be linked meaningfully?

A

Yes, can be linked to meaningful information =

  • the cue of STM can make you think of loads of info about STM.
56
Q

What is context-dependent forgetting?

A

Memory retrieval is dependent on external/environmental cues =

  • e.g. the weather or a place.
57
Q

What is state-dependent forgetting?

A

Memory retrieval is dependent on internal/state of mind cues =

  • e.g. feeling upset or being drunk.
58
Q

Who conducted a study to support retrieval failure?

A

Godden and Baddeley (1975) –> context-dependent forgetting.

59
Q

What was Godden and Baddeley’s procedures?

A

Deep-sea divers learned word lists and asked to recall them.

60
Q

What were the different groups in Godden and Baddeley’s study?

A

1) . Learn on land - recall on land.
2) . Learn on land - recall underwater.
3) . Learn underwater - recall on land.
4) . Learn underwater - recall underwater.

61
Q

What was Godden and Baddeley’s findings?

A

When learning and recall didn’t match =

  • recall was 40% lower than when they did match.
  • this was due to lack of cues (external), leading to retrieval failure.
62
Q

What are the evaluations of retrieval failure?

A

:) Supporting evidence =

  • Godden and Baddeley’s research.
  • Eyseneck says its the main forgetting in LTM.

:) Context-related cues have real-life application =

people often report these experiences (forgetting when downstairs, remembering upstairs).

:( Context effects aren’t as strong in real-life =

contexts have to be very different for retrieval failure.

:( ESP cannot be tested =

can’t actually see whether the cue has been encoded or not.

63
Q

What are the 3 different types of EWT topics?

A

1) . Misleading question.
2) . Anxiety.
3) . Cognitive interview (CI).

64
Q

What is a leading question?

A

Wording of a question which influences the ETW response.

65
Q

What are the 2 explanations of leading questions affecting EWT?

A

1). Repsonse-bias =

wording question =

  • no affect on memory.
  • influences answer.
    2) . Substitution =

wording of a question =

  • affects memory.
  • distorts accuracy, and answer.
66
Q

What study supports the leading question theory?

A

Loftus and Palmer (1974) =

  • car accident.
67
Q

What was Loftus and Palmer’s procedures?

A
  • 45 participants (students).
  • watched a clip of a car accident.
  • asked to judge the speed.
  • question asked ranged from; hit, contacted, bumped, collided or smashed.
68
Q

What was Loftus and Palmer’s findings?

A

Contacted =

  • mean estimated speed of 31.8 mph.

Smashed =

  • 40.5 mph.
69
Q

What are the 2 types of post-event discussion (PED) that can distort memory?

A

1). Memory contamination =

witnesses discuss event, and mix information from other witnesses with their own memories.

2). Memory conformity =

going along with other witnesses to win social approval, feeling their are right.

70
Q

What study supports post-event discussion distorts memory?

A

Gabbert et al. (2003) =

  • discussing a video of a crime.
71
Q

What were Gabbert et al. procedures?

A
  • Paired P. watched the same film of a crime.
  • But each P. saw elements that others didn’t.
  • Both discussed the video, before completing a test of recall.
72
Q

What did Gabbert et al. find?

A
  • 71% recalled aspects they didn’t see, they picked this up from the PED.
  • Control group (no discussion) = no errors.
73
Q

What are the evaluations of misleading information in EWT?

A

:) Real-life application =

police officers are careful on phrasing questions to avoid errors.

:( Loftus and Palmer use artificial materials =

  • film clips are different from real-life.
  • Yuille and Cutshell –> witnesses to armed robbery had accurate recall 4 months later.

:( Individual differences in accuracy of EWT =

Anastasi and Rhodes found older people are worse.

:( Lab studies of EWT suffer demand characteristics =

P. may say they saw something (e.g. a blue car) as they think they are being helpful.

74
Q

What are the 2 studies into anxiety of EWT?

A

1) . Johnson and Scott (1976) =
- anxiety has a negative effect.
2) . Yuille and Cutshall (1986) =
- anxiety has a positive effect.

75
Q

What was Johnson and Scott’s procedures?

A
  • P. sat in a waiting room to take part in a lab study.

- They heard an argument in the next room.

76
Q

What were the 2 conditions in Johnson and Scott’s study?

A

1). Low-anxiety condition =

man walked through waiting room with a pen with grease on his hands.

2) . High-anxiety condition =
- sound of breaking glass.
- man with paper knife covered in blood.

77
Q

What was Johnson and Scott’s findings?

A
  • 49% of low-anxiety = able to identify him.
  • 33% of high-anxiety group.
  • Focused on weapon rather than the attacker due to anxiety.
78
Q

What is a limitation of Johnson and Scott’s study?

A

It may test surprise not anxiety =

  • they may focus on a weapon due to surprise, not anxiety.
  • Pickel = found EWT accuracy poorer with unusual items (raw chicken).
79
Q

What was Yuille and Cutshall’s procedures?

A
  • 13 witnesses of a real crime (gun shop owner shot dead a thief) agreed to take part.
  • Interviews from 4-5 months after incident were compared to interviews taken at the time of the shooting.
  • They rated how stressful they felt.
80
Q

What was Yuille and Cutshall’s findings?

A

Participants with highest stress were very accurate 4-5 months after the incident (88% compared with 75% of low stressed group).

81
Q

What does Yerkes and Dodson argue about performance and stress?

A

It’s curvilinear =

  • Medium arousal/stress = peak performance (Yerkes-Dodson Law).
82
Q

How does the Yerkes-Dodson Law contradict findings of anxiety in EWT accuracy?

A

1) . Johnson and Scott =
- low anxiety = best recall, not supported by Yerkes-Dodson Law.
2) . Yuille and Cutshall =
- high stress = best recall, also opposite of Yerkes-Dodson Law.

83
Q

What did Deffenbacher (1983) propose about anxiety?

A

Low levels = low recall.

  • recall increases as anxiety does, but only up to a certain point (optimal).
  • too much anxiety = low recall.
84
Q

What are the evaluations of anxiety of EWT?

A

:( Field studies lack control of variables =

interviewing witnesses after the event allows many things to happen in the meantime (PED).

:( Ethical issues in research =

creating anxiety in P. can be unethical, but studies are beneficial.

:( Inverted-U explanation is too simplistic =

anxiety is measured via cognitive, emotional and behavioural, but this explanation ignores emotional experiences of witnesses.

85
Q

What is cognitive interviews (CI) based on?

A

Psychological understanding of memory.

86
Q

Who says EWT could be improved if police use techniques based on how memory works?

A

Fisher and Geiselman (1992).

87
Q

Why are they called cognitive interviews?

A

Because it identifies the foundation of cognitive psychology.

  • Allows Rapport with interviewee.
88
Q

What are the 5 stages of CI?

A

1). Report everything =

even trivial info, it may trigger other memories.

2). Reinstate the context =

context-dependent forgetting = imagine the original crime scene (cues may trigger recall).

3). Reverse the order =

recalled in a different order to prevent expectations of how the event must have happened.

4). Change perspective =

recall incident from another persons perspective, this prevents the influence of schemas.

5). Enhanced cognitive interview.

89
Q

What is an enhanced cognitive interview?

A

Fisher et al. (1987) =

additional aspects of the CI =

  • knowing when to establish eye contact.
  • reduce EW anxiety.
  • minimise distractions.
  • getting the EW to speak slowly.
  • ask open-ended questions.
90
Q

What are the evaluations of CI?

A

:) Some elements are useful =

  • each individual element was equally valuable.
  • but using 2 together produced better recall.

:) Support for the effectiveness of enhanced CI =

  • Kohnken at al. (1999) - meta-analysis (50 studies).
  • enhanced CI consistently more correct info.

:( CI is time-consuming =

takes longer than standard interviews to establish rapport, so its unlikely to be used.

:( Unreliable research due to variations of the CI =

difficult to draw conclusions due to researchers and police using their own, different methods of the CI.

Psychology - Paper 1 (4 decks)

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