Psychopathology Flashcards
5HT1-D beta
Candidate gene that may be involved in the development of OCD
OCD is Polygenic
OCD is not caused by a single gene, but that several genes are involved
Diathesis-Stress Model
People gain vulnerability to OCD through genes but an environmental stressor is also required. This could be a stressful event (e.g. a bereavement)
Taylor (2013)
Analysed findings of previous studies and found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD
OCD is Aetiologically Heterogenous
the origin of OCD has different causes
Lewis (1936)
Observed his OCD patients
37% had parents with OCD
21% had siblings with OCD
Suggests that OCD runs in families and genetic vulnerability is passed on, not the certainty of OCD
Psychopathology
the study of the causes of psychological diseases
Statistical Deviation
occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic (e.g. being more depressed of less intelligent than most of the population)
Deviation from Social Norms
concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society (e.g. anti-social personality disorder)
Strengths of Statistical Deviation
The mathematical nature of this definition means that it is clear what is defined as abnormal and what is not. There is no opinion involved which means there is no bias.
Statistical infrequency is often used in clinical practice to assess and diagnose an individual’s symptoms. A diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ of below 70 (bottom 2%). A diagnosis of severe depression using the Beck depression inventory is a score of 30+ (top 5%)
Weakness of Statistical Deviation
Characteristics classified as abnormal such as an IQ above 130 or a very low depression score on the BDI can actually be positive and desirable. This suggests statistical deviation alone is no a sufficient method of defining abnormality.
Strength of Deviation from Social Norms
Deviation from social norms is also used in clinical practice. When diagnosing anti-social personality disorder, characteristics of the disorder, such as recklessness, aggression, and deceitfulness are all deviations from social norms. The definition has value in psychiatry.
In most instances, if you have lived within a culture for a long time, you will be aware of what is, and what is not acceptable.
Weakness of Deviation from Social Norms
Social norms vary across cultures which means it can be difficult to judge deviation from social norms in different cultures
Failure to Function Adequately
occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day-to-day life (e.g. nutrition, hygiene, ability to hold down a job or maintain relationships)
Rosenham and Seligman (1989)
- unpredictability
- maladaptive behaviour
- personal distress
- irrationality
- observer discomfort
- violation of moral standards
- unconventionality
(all are subjective)
Intellectual Disability Disorder
very low IQ (below 70)
diagnosis not made on this basis only, an individual must also be failing to function adequately
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health
Marie Jahoda (1958)
we are in good mental health if:
- no symptoms or distress
- rational and can perceive ourselves accurately
- self-actualise (reach our potential)
- can cope with stress
- have a realistic view of the world
- good self-esteem and lack guily
- independent of other people
- can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure
Strengths of Failure to Function Adequately
This definition is focused to the individual and how they are managing in everyday life from their perspective, so if someone feels as though they are struggling they will be deemed abnormal and will get help
Weakness of Failure to Function Adequately
As the focus is on how well someone is coping, it may mean that some abnormal behaviour is missed. People may appear fine to others as they fit into society and have jobs and homes, but they may have distorted thinking which is causing them inner distress that they hide
Strength of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
Included a range of criteria from which we can assess ourselves and others. It covers most of the reasons why a person might seek help with their mental health. Mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of professionals who may focus on different aspects (e.g. a psychiatrist may focus on symptoms and a humanistic counsellor may focus on self-actualisation)
Weakness of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
The criteria outlined by Jahoda makes ideal mental health practically impossible to achieve. This can be disheartening and also means that the majority of the population, using this definition, would be abormal
Phobia
an irrational fear of an object or stimulation
Behavioural
ways in which people act
Emotional
Related to a person’s feelings or mood
Cognitive
Refers to the process of ‘knowing’, including thinking, reasoning, remembering, believing
DSM-5 Categories of Phobias
All phobias are characterised by excessive fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place or situation. The extent of the fear is out of proportion to any real danger presented by the phobic stimulus
Specific - phobia of an object (e.g. animal) or situation (e.g. flying)
Social Anxiety - phobia of a social situation (e.g. public speaking)
Agoraphobia - phobia of being outside or in a public place
Behavioural - Panic (Phobia)
Panic may involve a range of behaviours including crying, screaming or running away
Children may react slightly differently by freezing, clinging or having a tantrum
Behavioural - Avoidance (Phobia)
Unless the person is making a conscious effort to face their fear they tend to go to a lot of effort to prevent coming into contact with their phobic stimulus. This can make it hard to go about daily life.
Behavioural - Endurance (Phobia)
This occurs when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus.
Emotional - Anxiety (Phobia)
Phobias are classed as anxiety disorders. By definition they involve an emotional response of anxiety. an unpleasant state of high arousal. This prevents a person relaxing and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion. Can be long term.
Emotional - Fear (Phobia)
Fear is the immediate and extremely unpleasant response we experience when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus. It is usually more intense but experienced for shorter periods than anxiety
Emotional - Unreasonable (Phobia)
The anxiety or fear is much greater than is ‘normal’ and disproportionate to any threat posed.
Cognitive - Selective Attention (Phobia)
If a person can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it. Keeping our attention on something really dangerous is a good thing as it gives us the best chance of reacting quickly to a threat, but this is not so useful when the fear is irrational
Cognitive - Irrational Beliefs (Phobia)
A person with a phobia may hold unfounded thoughts in relation to a phobic stimulus
Cognitive - Cognitive Distortions (Phobia)
The perceptions of a person with a phobia may be inaccurate and unrealistic.
Behavioural (Behaviourist) Approach
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and it terms of learning
Two-process model
Proposed by Orval Hobart Mowrer (1960)
An explanation for the onset and persistence of disorders that create anxiety, such as phobias. The two-processes are classical conditioning for onset and operant conditioning for persistence
Classical Conditioning
Learning by association. Occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired together- an unconditioned stimulus and a new neutral stimulus. The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned stimulus alone
Operant Conditioning
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
Acquisition of Phobias
By classical conditioning
Maintenance of Phobias
By operant conditioning
Watson and Rayner (1920)
Created a phobia in 9-month old Little Albert
Albert showed no unusual anxiety at the start of the study
When shown a white rat he tried to play with it
Watson and Rayner - Procedure
Whenever the rat was presented to Albert the researchers made a loud frightening noise by banging on an iron bar close to Alberts ear
Little Albert Acquisition
The noise is an unconditioned stimulus which creates an unconditioned response (fear)
When the rat (neutral stimulus) and the UCS are encountered close together in time the NS becomes associated with the UCS and both now produce the fear response
Alberts showed fear when he saw a rat (NS)
The rat is now a learned or conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response
Watson and Rayner - Findings
Little Albert associated the NS and the UCS to produce an UCR
The NS is now a CS that produces a CR (fear)
Little Albert was fearful of rats
Generalising Phobias
e.g. Little Albert
Tested Albert by showing him other furry objects such as a non-white rabbit, a fur coat and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard
Little Albert displayed stress at all of these
