Psychopathology Flashcards
What is the DSM?
Handbook used by psychologists in the US which categories different disorders on the basis of signs/symptoms.
When was the DSM first published?
1952, it’s the only classification used in the US
What is the ICD?
A handbook produced by a global health agency and is the international classification in psychiatry
- it categories on the basis of signs and symptoms, takes account of social and environmental problems that influence disorders
What is a statistical infrequency?
A definition of abnormality which classes a behaviour as abnormal if it is statically uncommon.
What are the disadvantages of using statistical infrequencies as a definition of abnormality?
- fails to account for behaviour that is statsically rare but desirable (e.g. high IQ)
- some disorders aren’t statically infrequent (e.g. depression - 17–20% of people)
What are the advantages of using statistical infrequencies as a definition of abnormality?
- provides clear points and comparisons between people (clear cut off points)
What are the four definitions of abnormality?
- Statistical infrequency
- Deviation from social norms
- Failure to function adequately
- Deviation from ideal mental health
What are social norms?
Expected ways of behaving in any given society.
What are deviations from social norms?
A definition of abnormality which defines people as abnormal if they behave differently from other people in a society
What is antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy)?
An absence of pro-social internal standards associated with failure to conform to lawful or culturally normative behaviour
What is cultural relativism?
Social norms vary tremendously from one culture to another, therefore what is deemed abnormal in one social is seen as normal in another.
What are the disadvantages of using deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality?
- behaviours considered abnormal changes over time (homosexuality was a disorder till 1973)
- cultural relativism
- people may just be socially deviant
What are the advantages of using deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality?
- we can see these behaviours in the DSM which gives it validity and reliability
What is failure to function adequately?
When an individual is no longer able to cope with the demands of everyday life.
What are some examples of failure to function adequately?
- basic standards of nutrition or hygiene failing
- maintaining relationships
- holding down jobs
Who came up with the characteristics for failure to function adequately?
Rosenhan & Seligman (1989)
What characteristics did Rosenhan & Seligan suggest for an individual to fail to function adequately?
1) personal distress
2) irrationality
3) violation of moral standards
4) unpredictability (loss of control)
5) maladaptive behaviour
6) observer discomfort
What were the two clinical assessments used for FFA?
- Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF) - NOT USED ANYMORE
- REPLACED BY - World Health Organisation Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS) in 2013
What is the Global Assessment of Function?
- a numerical scale to asses functioning and diagnose disability
What is the World Health Organisation Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS)?
- the clinical assessment that replaced the GAF, it’s more detailed and objective
What are the disadvantages of using failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?
- it can be hard to differentiate between someone DSN or FFA
- it’s a subjective judgement (someone has to make a judgement whether the person meets the criteria)
What are the advantages of using failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality?
- includes the lived, subjective experience of the individual
What is deviation from ideal mental health?
A definition of abnormality which is based around the idea that there are distinct markers that signal ‘wellness’ or ideal mental health
How can we define ideal mental health according to Jahoda?
PRAISE:
- Personal growth
- Reality perception
- Autonomy
- Intergration
- Self-attitudes
- Enviromental mastery
We should all have these present in order to be normal
Explain personal growth in PRAISE?
Self-actualisation
Explain reality perception in PRAISE?
The person should know what’s real and what’s not real
Explain autonomy in PRAISE?
The person having independence
Explain integration in PRAISE?
The person should be able to fit in society.
Explain self-attitudes in PRAISE?
The person must have a high or decent self-esteem
Explain environmental mastery in PRAISE?
The person should be able to cope in their environment, must be able to adjust to different situations
What are the strengths of PRAISE?
- covers a broad range of criteria for mental health
- includes nearly all the reasons why someone might need help
What are the weakness of PRAISE?
- sets unrealistic expectations for our mental health
- some criteria is culturally bound to western society
How is autonomy in PRAISE culturally bound to western society?
Western (individualist) culture tend to focus on one’s self and immediate family whereas collectivist culture do more for their extended family and community.
According to Jahoda, what makes a person psychologically abnormal?
If a person is missing at least one of the criteria of PRAISE it means that they are psychologically abnormal
What is a phobia?
An anxiety disorder where an irrational object or situation makes you go into the fight or flight response
What are the diagnostic features of a phobia?
- Intense, persistent and irrational fear of a particular situation or object
- Response is disproportionate and leads to avoidance of phobic object or situation
- Fear is severe enough to interfere with daily life
What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?
- unpleasant state
- anxiety
- fear is immediate and extremely unpleasant
What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?
- panic
- avoidance
- endurance (in unavoidable situations)
What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?
- irrational thoughts
- the person knows that their fear is excessive
- thinking resist rational arguments about the phobia
How can we use the behavioural approach to explain phobias?
By using the two process model
Who came up with the two process model?
Mowrer (1947)
What are the two concepts of the two process model?
- Classical Conditioning (developing the phobia)
- Operant Conditioning (maintaining the phobia)
How does classical conditioning develop a phobia?
The fear is developed by association
How does operant conditioning maintain a phobia?
By negative reinforcement - avoiding the phobia means we are rewarded to not feel fear, so the phobia is maintained.
What does the two process model suggest?
It suggest that we learn to be phobic through the processes of classical conditioning and maintain the phobia through operant conditioning.
What piece of evidence supports the idea that classical conditioning develops phobias?
Little Albert study
What are the strengths of using the behaviourist approach to explain phobias?
- explains the role of CC in the development of phobias
- provides strategies for treating phobias
What are the weakness of using the behavioural approach to explain phobias?
- many people with phobias can’t identify the incident (DiNardo’s study)
- conditioning is not the only way fears are acquired (e.g. evolutionary aspects)
What the two treatments that use the biological approach to treat phobias?
- systematic desensitisation
- flooding
What is systematic desensitisation?
This is a behavioural therapy based on the principals of classical conditioning. It aims to extinguish an undesirable behaviour (fear) with a more desirable one.
What are the steps of systematic desensitisation?
Step 1) - Therapist teaches the patient relaxation skills
Step 2) - The therapist and patient come up with a hierarchy of fear
Step 3) - The patient is presented the least fearful part of the phobia, the patient will feel mildly tense which will put them at risk of going into fight or flight so they will practice relaxation techniques. This is repeated with the rest of the hierarchy.
Step 4) - The therapist then encourages the patient to confront their fears in real life
How long does systematic desensitisation ususally take?
The number of sessions depends on the strength of the phobia
- 4 to 6 sessions generally, up to 12 for severe phobias
What is supporting evidence for the effectiveness of systematic desensitisation?
Gilroy (2003)
- 42 people with arachnophobia were treated using SD. They were compared to a control group who were treated with just relaxation and no exposure. When checked up on after 3 months, the SD group were less fearful than the control group
What is flooding?
The phobia therapy which immediately exposes the patient to their fear
What are the steps of flooding?
Step 1) - immediate exposure to the frightening stimulus
Step 2) - prevention of avoidance until they are calm
Step 3) - patient learns that stimulus is harmless
Step 4) - patient no longer produces the conditioned feared response
What the two components of flooding?
- unavoidable exposure
- extinction
What is unavoidable exposure?
introducing the patient to the thing that they fear in the most immediate and unavoidable way
What is extinction?
Learning the event/object the patient fears with something neutral
What are the two ways flooding can be carried out?
- Invitro - client imagines being exposed
- Invivo - client is exposed to the real thing
What is supporting evidence for flooding?
Keane et al (1989)
- 24 Vietnamese veterans with PTSD were studied. Soldiers received 14-16 sessions of flooding. They were tested before and 6 months later for symptoms of PTSD. When compared to a control group that didn’t recive therapy, the flooding group has fewer terrifying flashbacks.
What is depression?
Clinical depression is a disorder characterised by low mood. It causes a number of changes to the way you think, feel and behave.
What are the behavioural characteristic of depression?
- change in activity levels
- disruption to sleeping and eating
- aggression and self-harm
What are the emotional characteristic of depression?
- lowered mood
- anger
- lowered self-esteem
What are the cognitive characteristic of depression?
- poor concentration
- dwelling on the negative
- absolutist thinking (black + white thinking)
How can we use the cognitive approach to explain depression?
- Beck’s cognitive theory
- Ellis’s ABC model
What is Beck’s cognitive theory?
The theory developed by Aaron Beck (1967) which states that an individuals cognition (the way they think) makes them more vulnerable to depression
What is faulty information processing in Beck’s cognitive theory?
Beck suggested that people with depression pay selective attention to their environment
- depressed people pay attention to the negative aspects of reality
How do negative self-schemas play a part in Beck’s cognitive theory?
Beck suggested that individuals can develop negative self-schemas from lived experience and henceforth all new information about ourselves is interpreted negatively
What is the negative triad?
Cyclical negative thinking which is bought about by negative self- schemas and faulty information processing
What are the three components of the negative triad?
- negative views about one’s self
- negative views of the world
- negative views about the future
What are the strengths of Beck’s cognitive theory?
- it has strong supporting evidence (Clark&Beck (1999) concluded that the three negative thinking aspects are present before depression)
- practical application in CBT
What are the weakness of Beck’s cognitive theory?
Doesn’t explain all aspects of depression (it’s a complex disorder that overlaps with other disorders)
What is Ellis’s ABC model?
The theory made by Albert Ellis (1962) that suggests that poor mental health, ie depression, is caused by irrational thoughts, which stem from a negative event.
What is A in the ABC model?
Activating event - an external event that trigger irrational thoughts
What is B in the ABC model?
Beliefs - irrational thoughts lead onto irrational beliefs
What is C in the ABC model?
Consequences - irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy, negative and maladaptive negative responses, resulting in depression
What are the strengths of the ABC model?
- it has a practical application in CBT
What are the weakness of the ABC model
- it’s only a partial explanation (some cases of depression form without an obvious cause)
- doesn’t explain all aspects of depression (e.g. delusion or hallucinations)
