Psychopathology

Question 1

Define deviation from social norms

Answer 1

Anyone who behaves differently (deviates) from the standards of acceptable behaviour that are set by a social group for no apparent reason is classed as abnormal.

Question 2

Define statistical infrequency

Answer 2

A persons thinking or behaviour is abnormal if its statistically rare and unusual

Question 3

Define deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 3

Abnormal behaviour is defined in terms of the extent to which it differs from ideal metal health. Marie Jahoda suggested that we are in god mental health if we meet the criteria, anyone without these qualities would be vulnerable to mental disorder.

Question 4

What is the criteria for deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 4

1)self-attitudes: we have high self esteem and a strong sense of identity
2)We are rational and can perceive ourselves accurately
3)Personal growth: we self-actualise
4)Integration: we can cope with stressful situations
5)Accurate perception of reality: we have a realistic view of the world
6) Autonomy: Being independent and self-regulating
7)Mastery of the environment: we can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure

Question 5

Define failure to function adequately

Answer 5

Abnormality can be judged in terms of not being able to cope with everyday living. Not functioning adequately may cause distress and suffering for the individual and/or may cause distress for others.

Question 6

Rosenhan and Seligman created a criteria for FFA, what is it?

Answer 6

1)Maladaptiveness: behaviour that prevents one from achieving well being and important life goals. Seriously antisocial behaviour that interferes with the wellbeing of society is also considered maladaptive.
2)Irrationality: Behaviour that makes no sense to others - when their perception seems to have no basis in reality
3)Unpredictability/loss of control: impulsive behaviour that seems uncontrollable
4)Observe discomfort: Behaviour that makes other people uneasy or uncomfortable.
5)Suffering/personal distress: being affected by emotion to an excessive degree may be judged as a sign of abnormality. Sometimes this is the only sign of abnormality in disorders such as depression.

Question 7

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias?

Answer 7

1)Panic: e.g. crying, screaming or running away
2)Avoidance: sufferer tends to go to a lot of effort to avoid coming into contact with the phobic stimulus to the point that it would interfere significantly with the persons normal routine, occupation, social activities or relationships
3)Endurance: They remain in the presence of the stimulus and continue to experience high levels of anxiety

Question 8

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias?

Answer 8

1) Anxiety: High arousal which prevents the sufferer relaxing and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion
2) Being unreasonable: The individual often suffers from a strong emotional response which is disproportionate to the danger posed.

Question 9

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias?

Answer 9

1) Selective attention: if a sufferer can see the stimulus it is hard to look away from it and stop thinking about it
2) Irrational beliefs: The individual often resists rational arguments
3) Cognitive distortions: Their perception of the stimulus may be distorted

Question 10

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression?

Answer 10

1) change in activity levels: In most depressed patients there is a shift in activity levels and tiredness (Either reduced or increased)

2) Disruption of sleep and eating behaviour: some will sleep much more whereas others may struggle to sleep and experience insomnia. Some ma have a deceased appetite and some may eat considerably more.

3) Aggression and self-harm: Sufferers of depression are often irritable, and in some cases they can become verbally or physically aggressive. Depression can also lead to physical aggression directed at the self. This includes self-harm.

Question 11

Emotional characteristics of depression

Answer 11

1) Lowered mood
2) Anger - directed towards others or turned inwards at the self.
3) Lowered self-esteem: often feel worthless, hopeless and/or experience low self-esteem

Question 12

Cognitive characteristics of depression

Answer 12

1) Attending to and dwelling on the negative. Sufferers also have a bias towards recalling unhappy events rather than happy ones
2) Absolutist thinking e.g. ‘black and white thinking’ where they believe that everything is either really good or really bad
3) Poor concentration e.g. being unable to stick with a task or finding it hard to make decisions that are straight forward

Question 13

Behavioural characteristics of OCD

Answer 13

1) Compulsions: behaviours are performed to reduce the anxiety created by obsessions. They are repetitive and unconcealed e.g. hand washing
2) Avoidance: Keeping away from situations that trigger OCD/anxiety

Question 14

Emotional characteristics of OCD

Answer 14

1) Anxiety, worry and distress: The obsessions and compulsions are a source of considerable anxiety and distress. Sufferers are aware that their behaviour is excessive and this causes feelings of embarrassment and shame
2) Guilt and disgust: OCD often involves other negative emotions such as irrational guilt or disgust, which may be directed against something external like dirt or at the individual
3) Accompanying depression: OCD is often accompanied by depression. Compulsive behaviour only brings a temporary relief from anxiety.

Question 15

Cognitive characteristics of OCD

3

Answer 15

1) Obsessive thoughts: Obsessions are recurrent intrusive thoughts e.g. germs are everywhere
2) Insight into excessive anxiety: The person recognises that he obsessional thoughts or impulses are a product of their own mind but they feel that they cannot control them
3) Hyper vigilance: Sufferers will maintain constant alertness and keep attention focused on potential hazards.

Question 16

A01 the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

Answer 16

-Suggests that phobias are acquired through the two process model proposed by Mowrer.
-It states that phobias are acquired through CC maintained through OC.
-CC is learning by association. Phobias develop when a person learns to associate something which they initially have no fear (NS) with something that triggers a fear response (UCS), causing the UCS to become a CS.
-OP is learning by reinforcement. If a behaviour is reinforced, then this increases the frequency of the behaviour. As a result, for phobic individuals, avoiding their phobic stimulus decreases anxiety, so they are likely to continue to avoid it.

Question 17

A03 the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (8 marks)
PLAN

Answer 17

(+)Supporting evidence
(-)over-simplistic

Question 18

A03 the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (8 marks)
(+)Supporting evidence

Answer 18

Watson and Rayner created a phobia in little Albert. They presented him with a rat whilst banging an iron bar with a hammer and this created the UCR of fear. After this process had been repeated many times, the rat became a CS that produces a CR (fear) ad caused him to have a phobia. Strength of the behavioural explanation of phobias because it demonstrates phobias can e learnt via the process of CC and therefore increases the validity of the behavioural explanation. Therefore, this increases the validity of the behavioural explanation due to the supporting evidence.

Question 19

A03 the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (8 marks)
(-) over-simplistic

Answer 19

The cognitive approach proposes that phobias may develop as the consequence of irrational thinking. Cognitive therapies such as CBT are also used to treat phobias, in some situations it can be more successful than he behaviourist treatment. The diathesis-stress model suggests that phobias are not causes by any one factor but instead suggests that the individual has a genetic pre-disposition to phobias which is triggered by environmental stimuli. Limitation as the behavioural explanation to treating phobias is limited and does not provide a **holistic **explanation . Therefore, the two-process model cannot be a full explanation of how phobias are initiated and maintained.

Question 20

A03 the behavioural approach to explaining phobias
(additional point)
(-)Nature vs nurture

Answer 20

Limitation of the explanation is that it favours the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate. The behaviourist approach suggest that phobias are caused by experience therefore clearly suggests that nurture alone is causing the disorder. Limitation as it ignores any evidence to suggest that phobias are caused by nature e.g. evolutionary explanations of phobias. However, people with phobias often recall a specific incident when their phobia appeared, for example, being bitten by a dog. Therefore, this makes it difficult to determine whether nature or nurture are more influential in causing phobias and it is likely to be a combination of both.

Question 21

What are the practical applications of the behaviourist approach to explaining/treating phobias ? (findings that provide supporting evidence to show practical applications)
-Can be used as supporting evidence for behavioural treatments for phobias (SD)

Answer 21

Gilroy et al followed up 42 patients who had been treated for spider phobia in three 45 minute sessions of SD. The phobias were assessed on several measures including the spider questionnaire and by assessing response to a spider. A control group was treated by relaxation without exposure. At both 3 months and 33 months after the treatment the SD group were less fearful than the relaxation group. Suggesting the approach must be at least partially valid.

Question 22

A03 deviation from social norms (8 marks) PLAN

Answer 22

(+)Easy to use
(-)Norms change - they are culturally and historically specific

Question 23

A03 deviation from social norms
(+) Easy to use

Answer 23

definition of abnormality is easy to use. This is because it is relatively easy for a doctor/psychologist to identify when behaviour breaks an unwritten or written rule. Strength because this definition enables people to have a mental abnormality to be identified. Once identified, they can receive appropriate treatment to make them better. Therefore, this easy to use definition can help to improve peoples’ lives quickly.

Question 24

A03 deviation from social norms
(-)Norms change - they are culturally and historically specific

Answer 24

For example, until the 1970’s homosexuality was listed as a mental disorder in the USA and in the UK in the last century, unmarried mothers were considered ‘morally insane’ and could be put in asylums for long periods of time. However, neither would be considered psychologically abnormal now. Limitation because, if clinicians are using culturally or historically biased norms to diagnose abnormality, they might inaccurately label someone as abnormal. Therefore, it is very difficult to make a reliable diagnosis of abnormality using this definition as clinicians from different generations and different cultures could make different diagnoses.

Question 25

A03 statistical infrequency PLAN

Answer 25

(+) Objective method (-) Label is not useful

Question 26

A03 statistical infrequency (+)Objective method for defining abnormality

Answer 26

This definition requires a clinician to use statistics to measure normal behaviour e.g. they can look at an IQ distribution curve and identify which scores would be classed as 'abnormal' when diagnosing intellectual disability disorder. Strength because it provides a practical method of diagnosing abnormality and does not rely on the subjective interpretation of the clinician. Therefore, this means that a clinician is likely to make a reliable and valid diagnosis of abnormality using this definition.

Question 27

A03 statistical infrequency (-) Label is not useful

Answer 27

Limitation of SI definition of abnormality is that when someone is living a happy fulfilled life, there is no benefit to them being labelled as abnormal regardless of how unusual they are. For example, someone with a very low IQ but is not distressed and quite capable of working etc would not need a diagnosis of intellectual disability. Limitation because if that person was then labelled as 'abnormal', this might have a negative effect on the way other view them and the way that they view themselves. This is therefore not a useful way of diagnosing abnormality.

Question 28

A03 deviation from ideal mental health PLAN | 2 points

Answer 28

(+)Successful practical applications (-)Difficult to achieve this standard

Question 29

A03 deviation from ideal mental health (+) Successful practical applications

Answer 29

This definition allows the patient and clinician to identify which criteria they do not meet and target them to help treat them so they recover. Strength as it helps treatments to be targeted and therefore more effective. This is therefore evident that shows the definition is a useful way of defining abnormality and improving peoples' lives.

Question 30

A03 deviation from ideal mental health (-)Difficult to achieve this standard

Answer 30

limitation of DFIHMH definition is that its difficult for anyone to achieve this standard. For example, somebody might have high self-esteem and autonomy, but have not yet reached their full potential (self-actualised), but they are perfectly happy with heir lives and might one day reach their full potential. Limitation because if clinicians use this definition then they may make an invalid diagnosis and incorrectly label someone as abnormal. therefor it over-diagnoses psychological abnormality.

Question 31

A03 Failure to function adequately PLAN | 2 points

Answer 31

(+) Can be used to make an objective diagnosis (-) Cultural bias

Question 32

A03 Failure to function adequately (+) Can be used to make an objective diagnosis | GAFS

Answer 32

Clinicians using this definition can use the 'Global Assessment of Functioning Scale' to help make a more objective diagnosis. This is used by clinicians to rate an individuals social, occupational and psychological functioning and is scored on a numerical scale. This is a strength of the definition because the scale allows clinicians to clearly judge the degree to which an individual is abnormal rather than just using their own opinion/judgement. Therefore, this can be a useful way of defining abnormality and lead to an accurate diagnosis.

Question 33

A03 failure to function adequately (-) Cultural bias

Answer 33

FFA is culturally specific (culture bound) because what is considered adequate in one culture or sub-culture might not be so in another. This may explain why lower class and non-white patients are more often diagnosed with mental disorders because their lifestyles are different from the culture of most clinicians making diagnoses of psychological abnormality. Limitation because this definition may lead to an invalid and unreliable judgement of functioning adequately and therefore incorrect diagnosis of psychological abnormality.

Question 34

Define Phobia

Answer 34

A disorder characterised by high levels of anxiety in response to a particular stimulus or a group of stimuli. The anxiety interferes with normal living.

Question 35

Define depression

Answer 35

a mood disorder where an individual feels sad and/or lacks interest in their usual activities. further characteristics include irrational negative thoughts, raised or lowered activity levels and difficulties with concentration, sleep and eating.

Question 36

Define OCD

Answer 36

An anxiety disorder where anxiety arises from both obsessions and compulsions

Question 37

What is the difference between obsessions and compulsions?

Answer 37

Obsessions are internal, persistent thoughts. Whereas, compulsions are external behaviours that are repeated over and over again. Compulsions are a response to obsessions and the person believes the compulsions will reduce anxiety.

Question 38

A01 the behaviourist approach to treating phobias

Answer 38

Systematic desensitisation - a behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of CC. The basis of the therapy is counterconditioning where the patient is taught a new association (relaxation) that runs counter to the original association (fear). In addition, it is impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the sae time, so one emotion prevents the other, known as reciprocal inhibition. Flooding - a behavioural therapy in which a phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus. This takes place across a small number of long therapy sessions.

Question 39

Outline systematic desensitisation

Answer 39

The first stage of the therapy is where the therapist teaches the patient relaxation techniques e.g. deep breathing. The therapist and client establish the least to most fearful situation of the phobic stimuli (anxiety hierarchy). The patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state across several sessions, starting at the bottom of the anxiety hierarchy. The patient works through the hierarchy gradually being relaxed at each exposure until the most feared step is responded to with relaxation.

Question 40

When is SD classed as successful?

Answer 40

when the patient can stay relaxed in situations high on their anxiety hierarchy. The bond between the CS (stimulus) and CR (fear) is broken by replacing the fear response with an opposite response, relaxation.

Question 41

Essay plan for SD as a treatment for phobias (3)

Answer 41

(+)Supported by evidence (Gilroy et al) (+)No side effects (-)Only works for some phobias

Question 42

A03 SD as a treatment for phobias (-) No side effects

Answer 42

Strength as it doesn't have side effects. As it only focuses on learning there are no biological side-effects at all as there would be with medication. Strength because the treatment will not lead to the patient experiencing additional difficulties. Therefore, SD is a useful treatment for phobias as people are likely to keep using the treatment which makes it more likely to be effective.

Question 43

A03 SD as a treatment for phobias (-)Only works for some phobias

Answer 43

Evidence shows it is not effective with social phobias such as agoraphobia. Also, it wouldn't work with phobias where gradual exposure would not be possible, e.g. if someone was scared of death. Limitation of SD because it can only be used to treat some phobias but not all. Therefore, it is only of limited use.

Question 44

A03 flooding PLAN

Answer 44

(+)Cost effective (+)Less time consuming (-)Not suitable for all phobias

Question 45

A03 flooding (+)Cost effective

Answer 45

Ougrin compared flooding to CBT and found that flooding is highly effective and quicker at removing some phobias (typically one session of 2-3 hours compared to 6-12 sessions of 1 hour of CBT). Strength because it means that patients are free of their symptoms relatively quickly and the treatment is therefore cheaper and more cost effective. Therefore, flooding is a useful treatment for phobias.

Question 46

A03 Flooding (+)Less time consuming

Answer 46

takes less time than SD. SD takes 6-8 sessions, which can take a long time, whereas flooding only lasts for 1 session over approximately three hours. Strength because people withy busy lives might not be able to commit to so many session of SD. therefore, clients may opt to choose flooding over SD.

Question 47

A03 Flooding (-)Not suitable for all phobias

Answer 47

Less effective for more complex phobias such as social phobias. This may be because social phobias have cognitive aspects. For example, a sufferer of a social phobia does not simply experience anxiety response but thinks unpleasant thoughts about the social situation. This type of phobia may benefit more from cognitive therapies as these tackle the irrational thinking. Limitation of flooding because it is not an effective treatment for all phobias. Therefore, flooding is a less useful treatment for phobias.

Question 48

Cognitive approach to explaining depression A01 -Ellis' ABC model

Answer 48

Ellis believed that depression results from irrational thoughts which interfere with us being happy and free of pain. He used the ABC model to explain how irrational thoughts affect our behaviour and emotional state: A-activating event B-belief: which may be irrational or rational C-consequence: rational beliefs lead to healthy emotions (e.g. acceptance) whereas irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotions (e.g. depression).

Question 49

The source of irrational beliefs lies in... according to Ellis

Answer 49

Mustabatory thinking, thinking that certain ideas or assumptions must be true for an individual to be happy e.g. I must do well or I am worthless.

Question 50

Cognitive approach to explaining depression A01 -Beck

Answer 50

Beck argued that people with depression experienced automatic negative thoughts. -He believed that depressed individuals feel as they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations of the world and they lack a perceived sense of control. -depressed people have acquired a negative schema during childhood, a tendency to adopt a negative view of the world. these negative schemas are activated whenever the person encounters a new situation that resembles the original conditions in which these schemas were learned. -Negative schemas lead to systematic cognitive biases in thinking

Question 51

Cognitive approach to explaining depression A01 -Beck's negative triad

Answer 51

Negative schemas and cognitive biases maintain the negative triad, a pessimistic and irrational view of three key elements in a persons belief system: 1) The self 2) The world 3) The future

Question 52

Evaluation of the cognitive approach to explaining depression PLAN

Answer 52

(+)Supported by evidence (+)Practical applications (-)Over simplistic (+)Emphasises the role of free will

Question 53

The cognitive approach to explaining depression (+) supported by evidence

Answer 53

Hammen and Krantz found that depressed ptps made more errors in logic when asked to interpret written material than non-depressed ptps. Strength because these cognitions can be seen before depression develops, further supporting Beck's idea that cognition causes depression. therefore, this is strong evidence for the cognitive explanation of depression and gives the explanation validity.

Question 54

A01 the cognitive approach to treating depression - Becks cognitive therapy

Answer 54

The patient learns how to spot their negative automatic thoughts and their negative cognitive triad (thought catching). The patient then learns how to logically challenge these negative thoughts by coming up with the evidence for and against them (reality testing) Then uses activities such as diaries to monitor events and identify situations in which negative thinking occurs so these can be challenged. They may be set HW such as recording when they enjoyed an event or when people are nice to them. This can then be used as evidence to prove the patients statements are incorrect. The therapist may also ask the patient to make small changes in their behaviour, such as activity raising (/behavioural activation) when patients build up their daily social activities and therefore test their fears. The schemas cause problems in thinking that can be challenged and then changed during CBT. The patient is treated as a scientist

Question 55

A01 cognitive approach to treating depression - Ellis' REBT (rational emotive behaviour therapy)

Answer 55

It is another form of CBT based upon the model which focuses on challenging or disputing the individuals irrational thoughts about an event and replacing them with effective, rational beliefs. This may extend the ABC model to an ABCDEF model. -Logical disputing - whether the negative thoughts logically follows from the facts -Empirical disputing - whether there is actual evidence to support the negative belief -Pragmatic disputing - emphasises the lack of usefulness of self defeating beliefs -Effective disputing - whether the activating events are actually realistic or not

Question 56

REBT may extend the ABC model to an ABCDEF model, what does DEF stand for?

Answer 56

D- disputing irrational thoughts and beliefs E- effect of disputing F- the new Feelings that are produced

Question 57

A03 the cognitive approach to treating depression PLAN

Answer 57

(+)Effective compared to drug treatments (-)Time consuming (-)Overemphasis on cognitions (-)Takes effort

Question 58

A03 the cognitive approach to treating depression (+)Effective compared to drug treatments

Answer 58

Evidence to suggest that it is effective. For example, Holon et al found that fewer depressed patients relapse after 12 weeks of CBT (40%) than those taking drugs (45%). Strength because this research suggests that the treatment works. Therefore, it can be used to prevent relapse and improve lives.

Question 59

A03 the cognitive approach to treating depression (-)Time consuming

Answer 59

Because CBT can takes over a year to be effective it is not appropriate for patients at high risk of suicide. Limitation because the treatment is not appropriate for individuals who are suffering from sever symptoms of depression and might be at risk of committing suicide. therefore some people need faster relief/treatment such as by anti-depressants.

Question 60

A03 the cognitive approach to treating depression (-) Takes effort

Answer 60

takes more effort compares to biological therapies. Patents may not be able to follow the activities of CBT (e.g. keeping a diary and socialising more) and some people may give up before it has had a chance to work or because it takes too long to work. this may be the case with patients with sever depression who may not be able to motivate themselves to follow the activities. Limitation because a symptom of depression is lack of motivation which might make putting in effort very difficult. Therefore, if a depressed patient cannot follow the activities CBT cannot be effective for them.

Question 61

A03 the cognitive approach to treating depression (-)Overemphasis on cognitions

Answer 61

There us a risk hat, because the focus is on irrational cognitions, the patient may end up minimising or ignoring the importance of their environment and social factors. For example, a patient living in poverty or suffering abuse needs to change their circumstances. Limitation because CBT techniques used inappropriately can demotivate people to change their situation. therefore, CBT is not always an effective treatment for all cases or types of depression.

Question 62

A01 the biological approach to explaining OCD - genetic explanation

Answer 62

-Individuals inherit specific genes from their parents that are related to the onset of OCD. A predisposition is passed on from parents. -Grootheest et al reviewed 70 years of twin studies on OCD with a sample of over 10,000 twins. They concluded that OCD can be passed on with the genetic influence ranging from 45 to 65% - Samuels et al found chromosome 14 was linked to compulsive hoarding behaviour

Question 63

A01 the biological approach to explaining OCD - genetic explanation (The COMT gene)

Answer 63

May contribute to OCD. COMT regulates the production of the neurotransmitter dopamine that has been implicated in OCD. One form of the COMT gene has been found to be more common in OCD patients than people without the disorder. This variation produces lower activity of the COMT gene and therefore higher levels of dopamine (Tukel et al)

Question 64

A01 the biological explanation of OCD - genetics (The SERT gene)

Answer 64

The SERT gene affects the transport of serotonin, creating lower levels of this neurotransmitter. Ozaki et al found a mutation of this gene in two unrelated families where six of the seven family members had OCD.

Question 65

A01 the biological explanation of OCD - genetics (polygenetic)

Answer 65

polygenetic refers to a characteristic that is influenced by 2 or more genes. It is possible that a number of caudate genes may have been implicated as a possible cause of OCD. For example, Taylor identified up to 230 caudate genes associated with OCD, suggesting that OCD is polygenetic. It has been argued that OCD may have aetiological heterogeneity, meaning that different combinations of genes that may cause the OCD in different people. Different combinations may also account for different types of OCD.

Question 66

A01 the biological approach to explaining OCD - neural explanations.

Answer 66

Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters, such as high levels of dopamine and low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD. Some cases of OCD seem to be associated with impaired decision making which may be as a result of abnormal functioning of the lateral of the frontal lobes of the brain. The neural explanation also include the 'worry circuit' in the brain. The two main areas of the brain associated with OCD are the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the caudate nucleus and thalamus.

Question 67

A01 the biological approach to explaining OCD - neural explanations (The worry circuit)

Answer 67

The OFC is responsible for sending the sorry signals, which are picked up by the thalamus and directed around the body. The caudate nucleus is responsible for supressing some of these worry signals. If the caudate nucleus is not working properly, the worry signals do not get supressed and a person worries too much this can cause OCD.

Question 68

A03 the biological explanation of OCD PLAN

Answer 68

(+)Supporting evidence - Nestadt et al 2000 and 2010 Counter: limited explanation (+)Practical applications (-)Treats symptoms not cause (-)Reductionist

Question 69

A03 the biological explanation of OCD (+)Supporting evidence

Answer 69

found that people with a first degree relative with OCD had five times greater risk of having the illness compared to the general population. Nestadt et al (2010) also found that concordance rates of OCD were double for monozygotic twins (68%) than dizygotic twins (32%). Strength of the genetic explanation of OCD because these findings suggest that OCD is inherited. The occurrence of OCD seems to run in families rather than the specific symptoms which shows there is at least a genetic contribution to OCD in terms of symptoms. therefore, the evidence suggests the biological explanation of OCD is valid.

Question 70

A03 the biological explanation of OCD (+)Supporting evidence COUNTER

Answer 70

However, this is a limited explanation of OCD as it does not explain all cases. For example, evidence for a genetic link for OCD in adulthood is much smaller. Therefore, the genetic explanation of OCD may be incomplete and therefore has limited validity.

Question 71

A03 the biological explanation of OCD (+)Practical applications

Answer 71

Strength of the neural explanation is that its produced a successful treatment for OCD. For example, anti-depressants such as SSRI's and antianxiety drugs such as benzodiazepines (BZ's) have been used to successfully treat OCD. Strength because, as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, the approach must be at least partially valid. This is therefore strong evidence for the neural explanation of OCD which helps to improve peoples lives.

Question 72

A03 the biological explanation of OCD (-) Treats symptoms not cause

Answer 72

although drugs may decrease the symptoms that does not mean an imbalance of serotonin was the cause in the first place (treatment fallacy). For example, anti-depressants such as SSRI's may reduce the symptoms but this does not mean a problem in serotonin activity was the cause of OCD. Limitation because as the treatment is based on the assumptions of the approach, the approach may not be valid. Therefore, the effectiveness of drugs is not evidence for the neural explanation of OCD.

Question 73

A03 the biological explanation of OCD (-)Reductionist

Answer 73

favour the nature side of the nature vs nurture debate and are therefore over-simplistic and can be said to be reductionist. This is because they focus only on biology and ignore evidence that suggests that OCD can be learnt like a phobia by CC and maintained by OP. Also, obviously there are problems in cognition with someone who is experiencing intrusive obsessional thoughts. Limitation because the biological approach ignores any evidence to suggest hat OCD is caused by psychological factors. Therefore, this is a limitation because the biological approach provides an incomplete explanation of OCD.

Question 74

A01 the biological treatments for OCD

Answer 74

This approach believes that OCD is caused by abnormal levels of neurotransmitters; drugs therefore aim to bring back normal levels of these neurotransmitters. The most commonly used drugs for OCD are antidepressants such as SSRI's such as fluoxetine. Benzodiazepines (BZ's) are commonly used to reduce anxiety

Question 75

A01 the biological treatments for OCD How do SSRI's work?

Answer 75

They inhibit the re-uptake of serotonin in the brain (synaptic transmission), enabling the serotonin to remain active at the synapse, where it continues to stimulate the post-synaptic neuron. This enables the neurons to work normally. Antidepressants are also used to reduce the anxiety associated with OCD. SSRI's are currently the preferred drug for treating anxiety disorders as they help to regulate mood and anxiety which, reduces the symptoms of OCD.

Question 76

A01 the biological treatments for OCD How do benzodiazepines work?

Answer 76

They slow down the activity of the CNS by enhancing the activity of the neurotransmitter GABA. When released, GABA has a general quietening effect on many neurons in the brain.

Question 77

A03 the biological treatments for OCD PLAN

Answer 77

(+)Supported by evidence (+)Less time and effort compared to CBT counter: not a cure (-)Side effects (-)Publication bias

Question 78

A03 the biological treatments for OCD (+)Supported by evidence

Answer 78

There is clear evidence for the effectiveness of SSRI's in reducing the severity of symptoms. For example, Soomro et al reviewed studies comparing SSRI's and placebos in the treatment of OCD and concluded that all 17 studies showed significantly better recovery rated for the drug treatment. Strength of the bio approach to treating OCD because this research suggests that the treatment is effective. Therefore, drug therapies are an effective treatment of OCD.

Question 79

A03 the biological treatments for OCD (+)Less time compared to CBT

Answer 79

They require little time and effort from the patient. Less time is required compared to therapies such as CBT where the patient has to attend regular meetings, usually over at least a year, and do a range of activities. Strength because it means that patients are more likely to continue taking the drugs and will therefore potentially recover quickly. It is also cheaper compared to treatments like CBT, it is therefore good value for the NHS. Therefore drugs are an effective treatment for OCD.

Question 80

A03 the biological treatments for OCD (+)Less time compared to CBT COUNTER

Answer 80

However, drugs only reduce some of the symptoms of OCD, they are not a cure. SSRI's may reduce the symptoms of depression associated with OCD but not the obsessive symptoms themselves which may explain why relapse rates are so high if only drug treatments are used.

Question 81

A03 the biological treatments for OCD (-)side effects

Answer 81

For example, SSRI's can cause sleep problems, irritability and even increased risk of suicide whilst BZ's are addictive. Limitation because the treatment will lead to the patient experiencing additional difficulties on top of their OCD symptoms. Therefore, the person may stop taking them so they cannot be effective.

Question 82

A03 the biological treatments for OCD (-)Publication bias

Answer 82

Limitation of the supporting evidence for the effectiveness of drug treatment for OCD is that it may be unreliable. A publication bias towards studies that show a positive outcome may exaggerate the benefits of antidepressant drugs in the treatment of OCD. Some psychologists believe that the evidence favouring drug treatment is biased because the research is sponsored by drug companies who do not report all the evidence or only publish positive results. This is a limitation because the evidence that drug treatment is effective may actually be very limited. Therefore, any evidence into the effectiveness of drug treatments should be trusted with caution.