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psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

three mental disorders we study

A

OCD
depression
phobias

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2
Q

what is a phobia

A

an irrational fear of an object /situation

it is an excessive fear triggered by an object or situation

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3
Q

what are the behavioural characteristics of a phobia

A

panic
-crying ,screaming

avoidance
-making an effort not to come in contact with their feared stimulus

endurance
-they remain in the presence of the stimulus and remain experiencing high levels of anxiety

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4
Q

what are the emotional characterisitics of a phobia

A

anxiety
-prevents relaxation and it makes it difficult to experince any positive emotions
-it can be long term -can occur even thinking about the stimulus
unreasonable response
-when the emotional response is disproportional to the stimuli r

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5
Q

what are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

A

irrational belief
-when beliefs are not reflective of reality

selective attention
-keeping full attention on stimuli allowing a quick response

cognitive distortion
-when the perception of stimuli is distorted

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6
Q

What is depression

A

A mental disorder characterised by low mood and energy

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7
Q

Describe depression

A

major depressive disorder -short term but severe

Persistent depressive disorder: long-term or recurring depression

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder: childhood temper tantrums

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder :disruption of mood prior or after menstruating

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8
Q

Describe the behavioural characteristics of depression

A

Disruption to eating and sleeping behaviour

Sufferers may experience reduced sleep (insomnia) while Others have an increased need for sleep (hypersomnia)

Appetite may also increase or decrease, leading to weight loss or weight gain

Aggression and self-harm

Sufferers tend to be irritable and in some cases verbally
and or physically aggressive

Reduced activity
Sufferers have reduced energy levels, making them lethargic

all of these have a knock-on effect – they may withdraw from work, education or social life

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9
Q

what are the emotional characterisitics of depression

A

lowered mood
-sad empty worthless

anger
-can often lead to self harm

lowered self esteem
-sufferers tend to dislike themselves

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10
Q

what are the cognitive characterisitics of depression

A

Poor concentration
Sufferers may find it difficult to stick to a task as they usually would
-struggle to make decisions

Dwelling on the negative
Sufferers are inclined to pay more attention to negative aspects and ignore the positives of a situation

absolutist thinking
depressed patients only make an entirely positive or entirely negative conclusion
-struggle to see the positives

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11
Q

what is OCD

A

a disorder characterised by compulsions and obsessions

obsessions -recurring thoughts, images
Compulsions – repetitive behaviours such as hand washing, turning switches on and off

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12
Q

what are the behavioural characteristics of OCD

A

Avoidance
Sufferers may avoid situations that trigger anxiety in order to manage compulsive behaviour

They are repetitive: sufferers feel compelled to repeat a behaviour

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13
Q

what are the emotional characteristics of OCD

A

Anxiety and distress

Anxiety accompanies both obsessions and compulsions
Obsessive thoughts can be frightening

Guilt and disgust
Some feel irrational guilt over minor moral issues, or disgust at the self

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14
Q

what are the cognitive characteristics of OCD

A

Obsessive thoughts
usually unpleasant

Cognitive strategies
e.g. a religious sufferer tormented with guilt may respond by praying) other examples include tapping, writing lists

catastrophic thoughts about worst case scenarios

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15
Q

what are the four main definitions of abnormality

A

statistical infrequency
deviation from social norms
failure to function adequately
deviation from ideal mental health

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16
Q

what is statistical infrequency

A

occurs when an individual has less common characteristics from the rest of the population

we use normal distribution to identify statistical infrequencies

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17
Q

what are the weaknesses of statistical infrequency

A

statistical infrequency can a positive
e.g intelligence IQ of 130 is statistically infrequent

Just because something is statistically infrequent doesn’t mean it is ‘abnormal’
The definition cannot be applied to all concepts – limited practical application

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18
Q

what is deviation from social norms

A

this concerns the behaviour that is not typically accepted in society
Social norms are specific to the culture we live in, so what is abnormal is difficult to judge universally

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19
Q

what is one weakness of deviation from social norms

A

there is the problem of cultural relativism meaning what is considered abnormal varies within different cultures

making it difficult to identify what is seen as abnormal

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20
Q

what is failure to function adequately

A

occurs when someone is unable to cope with every day demands
this looks like
Poor nutrition, poor hygiene, inability to keep a job or maintain relationships

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21
Q

what is the weakness with failure to function adequately

A

it is subjective
in order to determine whether someone is failing to function adequately because what one might think is abnormal behaviour , another psychologist to recognise it to be normal

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22
Q

what is deviation from ideal mental health

A

occurs when someone doesn’t meet the set criteria for good mental health

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23
Q

what did Jahoda propose that someone needs to have to have ideal mental health

A

positive self esteem
self actualise
integration
autonomy
accurate perception of reality
environmental mastery

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24
Q

what are the weaknesses in ideal mental health

A

Jahoda’s criteria has been criticised for being culture-bound – it is too specific to Western European and North American cultures

E.g. focus on personal achievement may be considered as self-indulgent in other parts of the world

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25
Q

what is the strength of deviation from ideal mental health

A

it is a postive approach to defining abnormality
focuses to look for characterisitics that are desirable so a person can strive to have a level of stability

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26
Q

what is the behavioural approach

A

an approach explaining behaviour based on what is observable and in terms of learning

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27
Q

what is the two process model proposed by mowrer

A

step 1. initiation -classical conditioning
Step 2.maintenance -operant conditioning

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28
Q

describe the initiation step

A

firstly have a neutral stimulus (NS) that triggers no response
This is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that produces an unconditioned response
After repeated pairings, the two stimuli produce a conditioned response

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29
Q

describe the little Albert study

A

here they conditioned a 9-month-old infant named “Albert” to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise. Albert later showed fear responses to the rat and other similar stimuli.

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30
Q

describe the maintenance stage

A

if a person avoids phobic stimulus they are rewarded with not feeling anxious . this negatively reinforces the behaviour as they will continue to avoid the stimulus and continue to experience anxiety from it.

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31
Q

what are the strengths of the behavioural explanations for phobia

A

there are real world applications:
has lead to the introduction of treatment such as systematic desensitisation and flooding which have proven to be successful in treating the condition

The explanation has uses beyond its explanatory power – it can be used in the real world which gives it credibility

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32
Q

what are the weaknesses of the behavioural explanation for phobias

A

it ignores cognitive factors
There cognitive aspects to phobias that cannot be explained by the behavioural model
The cognitive approach says that phobias are caused by irrational thinking

CBT- which has been successful in treating many mental disorders

incomplete explanation:
phobias have an underlying survival component linked to our evolutionary past.e.g snakes are a common phobia because they were a threat in our evolutionary past.
humans are innately programmed to rapidly associate snakes with fear therefore increasing our survival.

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33
Q

describe systematic desensitisation

A

through classical conditioning ,patients are taught a new response to phobic stimuli through relation techniques.
Patient and therapist work together to form an anxiety hierarchy where the most extreme stimuli at the top and the least intense stimuli at the bottom.

34
Q

what is flooding

A

the patient is flooded with immediate exposure tot the stimuli without any gradual build up
flooding stops the phobic responses quickly because the patient is unable to avoid the phobia

35
Q

what are the strengths of SD

A

research support – suggesting SD has high internal validity
Gilroy -carried out an experiment on 42 patients with spider phobia through 3 -45 minutes session on SD
they all carried out a questionaire on spiders before and after
the group that had followed through with the SD procedure showed signs of reduced fear of spiders compared to control group after both 3 months and 33 months

Also suitable for a diverse group of patients with phobias have learning difficulties – patients with learning difficulties may find it very hard to understand what is happening during flooding

36
Q

what are the strengths of flooding

A

The effectiveness of flooding can be observed after only one session in some cases
This is much more time and cost effective than having to attend multiple sessions of SD
Being rid of symptoms quicker consequently makes treatment cheaper

A “quick-fix” can be much more appealing to patients, especially those with busy lifestyles or phobias that affect their daily lives

37
Q

what are the weaknesses of flooding

A

Flooding is less effective for more complex phobias such as?
Social phobias – these are difficult to treat via flooding as they usually have cognitive aspects
more complex phobias are beyond just the behavioural response we see – there are cognitive/emotional reasons for irrational fear, not at all being tackled or considered with flooding

Overall, the treatment isn’t applicable to all (variety of keywords and extended evaluation you could use here)

Counter (comparison) – easy to come up with a solution to this problem – if behavioural treatment cannot cater for the complexity of some phobias, find a therapy that can – CBT (COGNITIVE behavioural therapy) – tackles both behavioural and cognitive aspects of disorders

more traumatic way of dealing with depression
less people are inclined to undergo the treatment
less research can be carried out on it
more economical implications surrounding the method of treatment

38
Q

what is the cognitive approach for explaining depression

A

Mental processes include thoughts, perceptions and attention
When explaining depression, the cognitive approach is interested in negative patterns of thinking and other cognitive processes such as schema

39
Q

what are the two explanations for depression

A

the ABC model-Ellis
becks cognitive theory of depression

40
Q

what does becks suggest is the three causes of depression

A

He suggested there are three parts to cognitive vulnerability

Faulty information processing
Negative self-schemas
The negative triad

41
Q

what is faulty information processing

A

When depressed, an individual attends to the negative aspects of a situation and ignores the positives

also known as absolutist thinking

42
Q

what is a negative self schema

A

A schema is a ‘package’ of ideas and information developed through experience

A self-schema is the package of information we have about ourselves
If an individual has a negative self-schema, they will interpret all information about themselves in a negative way

43
Q

what is the negative triad

A

negative view on the self
future and the world

44
Q

what are the weaknesses in Becks explanaitions

A

Beck’s theory has been criticised for only explaining the basic symptoms of depression
However, depression is more complex

Others experience hallucinations and bizarre beliefs
he theory is incomplete and not adequate enough to explain the complexity of depression – lacks credibility

45
Q

what are the strengths of becks cognitive theory of depression

A

Beck’s cognitive theory has formed the basis of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

CBT allows for any faulty cognition to be identified and challenged
These include components of the negative triad
A therapist can challenge them and encourage the patient to test whether they are true

46
Q

describe the breakdown of the ABC model

A

A – Activating event (bereavement)
We get depressed when we experience negative events – these trigger irrational beliefs
B – Beliefs
These can be rational or irrational – these can include musturbatory thinking (thinking that certain ideas must be true in order for an individual to be happy)
Holding these beliefs eventually lead to disappointment
C – Consequences
When an activating event triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural consequences 🡪 depression

47
Q

weaknesses in Ellis’ model

A

The model has been criticised for only explaining a certain type of depression – not all types of depression follow activating events

This type of depression is known as reactive depression – however, there are other types that do not have an obvious cause
The model lacks explanatory power and credibility – it cannot explain all types of depression, only one

The model may be too reductionist to explain the complexities of depression (simplifies the cause down to irrational beliefs)
Low credibility – there may be better alternative explanations that have higher explanatory power than Ellis’s model
doesnt expalin different aspects such as emotional factors

48
Q

what are the strentghs of Ellis’ model

A

practical applications
CBT

49
Q

what is CBT

A

aims to deal with the mental processes involved in depression, such as challenging negative thoughts
CBT can help to break the vicious circle of maladaptive thinking, feelings and behaviour.

50
Q

how does CBT work

A

You meet with a therapist for between 5-20, weekly, or fortnightly sessions.
Each session will last between 30 and 60 minutes.

51
Q

describe Becks cognitive therapy

A

Beck’s cognitive therapy is a direct application of Beck’s cognitive theory
Firstly, automatic thoughts about the world, self and future are identified
Once identified, the thoughts are challenged – usually by helping patients test the reality of their beliefs

52
Q

what do the specific techniques include

A

challenging thinking

set homework for patient

53
Q

Describe REBT

A

Ellis’s rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT)
REBT extends the ABC model to an ABCDE model
D = Dispute (challenge the thoughts)
E = Effect (see a more beneficial effect on thought and behaviour)

Therefore the central technique of REBT is to identify and dispute (challenge) the patient’s irrational thought

54
Q

What techniques are used in REBT

A

These would be challenged with vigorous argument – providing empirical evidence and challenging logic

55
Q

What is the research support for depression treatment (give results too)

A

March et al. (2007)
compared treatments for depression for 327 adolescents that either had
⚫ CBT
⚫ Antidepressant drugs
⚫ CBT and antidepressant drugs
⚫ They found that after 36 weeks, 81% of the CBT group, 81% of the antidepressant group and 86% of the combined group had a significant decrease in depression symptoms

56
Q

What are the weaknesses of CBT

A

May not be as effective for severe depression
⚫ In some cases depression may be so severe that patients cannot motivate themselves to engage with CBT
⚫ CBT is very cognitively demanding (homework tasks, etc.)
⚫ They may not even be able to concentrate during a session
⚫ Because of this, some patients need to be treated with antidepressants first

Success due to relationship with the therapist?
⚫ Some have argued that CBT is effective due to the strong therapist-patient relationship involved
⚫ Rosenzweig (1936) suggested that differences between successful therapies (like CBT and systematic desensitisation) are actually very small
⚫ The key factor in most of them is the therapist-patient relationship

57
Q

what are the two explanations for OCD

A

genetic explanation
neural explanation

58
Q

what are candidate genes -genetic explanaition

A

Candidate genes
These are genes that have been identified that create a vulnerability for OCD

Some of which have been found to be involved in regulating the development of serotonin
SERT gene (5-HTT) affects the transport of serotonin, creating lower levels of serotonin

59
Q

what is polygenic

A

Polygenic – refers to something that is not caused by one single gene but several genes are involved

60
Q

describe what Lewis discovered about the inheritance of OCD

A

Found that of his patients with OCD, 37% had least one parent with OCD and 21% had at least one sibling with OCD
This suggests that OCD runs in families –suggests that it is the vulnerability that is passed on, not the certainty of OCD

61
Q

what does aetiology heterogeneous

A

meaning that the origin of OCD has different causes (heterogeneous)

62
Q

describe twin studies

A

All studies compare behaviour between those most genetically similar (MZ twins) and those least genetically similar(DZ twins)
So in regards to twins, identical (MZ) twins are 2x more genetically similar than non-identical (DZ) twins (100% vs 50%)

63
Q

how are genetics investigated

A

twin studies
family history study
adoption studies

64
Q

what are concordance rate

A

Concordance rate: the rate of which two twins share the same characteristic
In other words, the % of twins that share the same characteristic

We use concordance rates to determine how strong a genetic link is

65
Q

what are the strengths and counter of the genetic exaplanation

A

Nestadt et al. (2010) did a review of previous twin studies and found that 68% of monozygotic twins shared OCD compared to only 31% of dizygotic twins

Although there is a significant no. of MZ twin that share OCD, there is still 32% that do not share it -never 100%

This means you’ll never find a characteristic that is completely genetic (even things like eye colour are ultimately affected by the environment)

If no characteristic can be 100% genetic, what does this mean for the genetic explanation, of anything?? Genetics alone will never be enough to explain behaviour – in this case, OCD, 32% is left unexplained – why does one identical twin have OCD but the other doesn’t?

This suggests that there must be other factors that explanation OCD – the genetic influence is never 100%

66
Q

what are the weaknesses in the genetic explanation

A

Although there is a clear genetic link for OCD, researchers have not been able to pin point exactly which genes are involved
This is because too many genes have been identified to be involved
Furthermore, each genetic variation only increases the risk of OCD by a fraction

Environmental factors can also trigger or increase the risk of developing OCD (the diathesis-stress model)

Cromer et al. (2007) – found that over half of the OCD patients in their sample had a traumatic event in their past
The OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma
Cromer et al.’s research suggest we may be looking at the wrong risk factor altogether – is it really the genes that cause a significant vulnerability? Or is it trauma? Maybe it is traumatic experiences we should be focusing on – even if it’s not the explanation for OCD, it could at least be more helpful to look at
Strength?: (a flip-side for discussion) – although it shows environment (trauma) is an important risk factor, it still suggests genes are important if we consider the diathesis-stress model – genes alone aren’t a good enough explanation but neither is the environment – it suggests BOTH are still needed, so the genetic explanation may still be of value

67
Q

what is neural explanations

A

the view that physical and psychological characteristics are determined by the behaviour of the nervous system ,in particular the brain

68
Q

describe the role of serotonin

A

Role of serotonin
Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another – serotonin regulates mood

If an individual has low levels of serotonin, normal transmission of mood-relevant information does not take place

69
Q

how is descion making asscoiated wih OCD

A

Some types of OCD have been associated with impaired decision-making
This may be associated with abnormal functioning of the frontal lobes in the brain (behind the forehead)
These are parts of the brain that are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions

70
Q

what part of the brain is responsible for decision

A

there is an area called the para-hippocampal gyrus

71
Q

what are the strengths of neural explanation for OCD

A

research support
There has been evidence to support the role of some neural mechanisms in OCD
Antidepressants that work purely on the serotonin system (increasing serotonin) have been given to patients with OCD
Such drugs have been effective in reducing OCD symptoms
If high levels of serotonin reduce the symptoms, it’s likely that low levels of serotonin in the first place must cause the symptoms! – validating the neural explanation

high real life application

72
Q

what are the weaknesses for the neural explanation

A

We cannot assume that there is a causal relationship between neural mechanisms and OCD

E.g. we do not know if low levels of serotonin cause OCD or is it just as likely that OCD causes low levels of serotonin
Similarly, abnormal functioning may not cause OCD, OCD may cause abnormal functioning

Do OCD patients start off with impaired decision making? Or does the OCD cause their decision making to become impaired?

Co-morbidity – when people suffer from more than one disorder

Those that suffer from OCD usually also suffer from depression – depression involves disruption to serotonin levels (affecting mood)
Why is this an issue?
The link between OCD and serotonin may actually be due to comorbidity with depression
This means there is a lack of internal validity in this explanation for OCD

73
Q

outline drug therapy

A

Drug therapy refers to using chemicals to increase/decrease/restore neurotransmitter levels in the brain, which have a knock-on effect on the functioning of the brain or bodily system

74
Q

What usually happens in the serotonin system

A

Serotonin is released from one neuron (presynaptic neuron) to another neuron (postsynaptic neuron)
To reach the postsynaptic neuron, serotonin must travel across a synapse (the gap between two neurons)
Some serotonin successfully travels to the postsynaptic neuron
Consequently, the excess serotonin is reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron

75
Q

what does SSRIS stand for

A

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

76
Q

what do SSRIS do

A

SSRIs prevent the breakdown and reabsorption of serotonin in the presynaptic neuron
SSRIs block the sites where reabsorption takes place, leaving excess serotonin in the synapse
However, chemicals cannot stay in the synapse – they must move into a neuron
Serotonin then has no choice but the move into the post-synaptic neuron
This means that there is more serotonin than usual travelling from one neuron to the next – increasing the overall amount of serotonin in the brain

77
Q

what are two alternatives to SSRIS

A

tricylics
SNRI

78
Q

what is the research support on drug therapy

A

Soomro et al. (2009)
Reviewed 17 studies (3097 ppts) that compared the effects of SSRIs to placebos () for treating OCD
They found that in all 17 studies there were significantly better results for the SSRIs than placebo conditions
A reduction in symptoms 6-13 weeks post treatment
What do these findings suggest? Why is this a strength?
Extra: effectiveness is usually best when combined with psychological treatment (CBT)
SSRIs reduce symptoms in around 70% of patients – the other 30% are given alternative/combinations of drugs and psychological treatment

79
Q

what are the strengths of using drug therapy

A

Drug treatment is much cheaper compared to psychological treatment
Many drugs are prescribed via a GP whereas therapies like CBT are more expensive
Additionally, drugs are less disruptive to people’s lives
All that is needed is to swallow a pill to reduce symptoms – compared to the demanding psychological engagement required for CBT
Why is this a strength?
Drug therapy is good value (particularly for a public health system) – therefore more popularly used in real-life

80
Q

what are the weaknesses of using drug therapy

A

Although drug therapy is effective for most OCD patients, there is still a small minority that receive no benefit at all
Some suffer side-effects such as indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex-drive
These are usually temporary, however
Side-effects of tricyclics are usually more severe
More than one in ten patients have erection problems, tremors and weight gain
More than one in a hundred become aggressive and suffer disruption to blood pressure and heart rhythm

81
Q

what is the biological approach

A

a perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body

Psychology (8 decks)

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