Psychopathology

Question 1

What does the behavioural model suggest - by Mowrer

Answer 1

All behaviour (including phobias) can be learnt
People who have an abnormality can learn negative behaviour

Question 2

What makes up the two process model

Answer 2

1) The phobia is learnt by classical conditioning or social learning
2) The phobia is maintained by operant conditioning

Question 3

How does classical conditioning work

Answer 3

Method of learning that builds up an association between two different stimuli so learning takes place
E.g.
- White rat (neutral stimulus with no initial reaction) is presented to a person by itself
- Loud banging noise (unconditioned stimulus) is presented which makes the person cry/emotional response on its own
- repeatedly pair the two stimuli together many times until classical conditioning and learning takes place - will have emotional response when hear noise and see rat
- then present white rat alone (conditioned stimulus) and the person will have an emotional response (conditioned response)
- learning has taken place via classical conditioning and an association has been established

Question 4

Classical conditioning case study

Answer 4

little Albert study - 11 month old boy
used white rat and struck steel bar with hammer
3x a week for 2 weeks (6 times in total)

Question 5

Generalisation meaning

Answer 5

The tendency to transfer a response from one stimulus to another that’s similar
E.g. scared of white fur coat due to fear of white rat

Question 6

Operant conditioning

Answer 6

This method involves learning a new response (phobia) that can result in reinforcement
Operant conditioning helps to explain how phobias can be maintained.
Negative reinforcement: For instance if someone is scared of snakes, they will try to avoid snakes in order to reduce the risk that they will feel fear.
Positive reinforcement: By avoiding snakes and not feeling fear, this is rewarding. Therefore the avoidance of snakes continues.

Question 7

+ve for behavioural explanation for phobias, AO3

Answer 7

Real world application
Systematic desensitisation + flooding

two process model= exposure therapies developed
distinctive element= phobias maintained by avoidance
important in explaining why people with phobia benefit from being exposed
once avoidance B prevented, ceases to being reinforced, A reduced, avoidance declines
Phobia cured
shows value of two process approach

Question 8

-ve of B approach to phobias, AO3

Answer 8

Limited model
The behavioral model, or two-process model, overlooks various factors contributing to phobias.

It emphasizes learning and environmental influences but disregards biological or evolutionary aspects.

Genetic predispositions to phobias may be more pronounced in some individuals, yet the behavioural model fails to address this.

Question 9

Little Albert, +ve and _ve AO3

Answer 9

-ve it was only conducted once and the findings have not been repeated (not very reliable)

Therefore it could be questioned whether the same results would be gained if this study was to be repeated when investigating whether phobias can be learnt via classical conditioning

The study could not be repeated nowadays due to ethical concerns

+ve link between experience + phobia, Little Albert.

Question 10

What is SD

Answer 10

Behavioural therapy developed by Wolpe (1958) to reduce/diminish phobias by using classical conditioning
A person with a phobia experiences fear and anxiety as a behavioural response to an object or situation

SD uses classical conditioning to replace the irrational fears and anxieties associated with phobic objects with calm and relaxed responses instead

The central idea of SD is that it is impossible to experience two opposite emotions at the same time e.g. fear and relaxation; this is called reciprocal inhibition

So if the patient can learn to remain relaxed (a new emotional response) in the presence of their phobia, they can be cured - reconditioning

Question 11

Process involved in SD

Answer 11

The hierarchy of fear
Relaxation techniques
Gradual exposure

Question 12

The hierarchy of fear

Answer 12

A hierarchy of fear is constructed by the therapist and the patient
Situations involving the phobic object are ranked from least fearful to most fearful

If a person has a phobia of snakes the therapist might at first get the patient to merely look at a photo of a snake, then at a snake in a tank, until eventually they are asked to hold a snake.

Question 13

Relaxation techniques

Answer 13

Patients are taught deep muscle relaxation techniques, such as deep breathing, progressive muscular relaxation (PMR) and the relaxation response

The idea behind PMR is to tense up a group of muscles so that they are as tightly contracted as possible, hold them in a state of extreme tension for a few seconds and then relax the muscles to their previous state

Finally, consciously relax the muscles even further so that the patient is as relaxed as possible

When doing the relaxation response patients are asked to sit quietly and comfortably and close their eyes

They then start by relaxing the muscles of their feet and work up their body relaxing muscles. While doing this they are asked to breathe deeply, meditate and imagine relaxing situations.

Question 14

Flooding

Answer 14

Flooding: Immediate exposure to feared object
Patient taught relaxation techniques beforehand
No gradual buildup with fear hierarchy
Immediate exposure to extreme situation (e.g., holding snake for a long time)
Can be done in vivo (real) or virtual (better in person)
No option for avoidance behavior
Extinction of phobic response may occur
Patient may achieve relaxation due to exhaustion

Question 15

Is flooding ethical and how long does it last

Answer 15

Flooding therapy deemed ethical despite initial psychological harm risk
Patient consent crucial; informed consent required to mitigate potential legal repercussions
Choice offered between systematic desensitization (SD) and flooding
Flooding sessions significantly longer (2-3 hours) compared to SD sessions

Question 16

+ve of SD AO3 treating phobias

Answer 16

+ve effective
McGrath et al, 75% of patients successfully treated. Especially for vivo technique, in contact with fear

Question 17

-ve for SD AO3 treating phobias

Answer 17

X treat all phobias
Some people do not develop fears from personal experience, rather from having evolutionary survival based phobia. With innate basis, meaning it X be overcome.

Question 18

-ve for flooding, AO3 treating phobias

Answer 18

-ve traumatic
Wolpe recalled patient being hospitalised, waste of time and money. Ethics, informed consent. Attrition (dropping out) higher than for SD

Question 19

+ve of flooding,

Answer 19

Cost effective, clinically effective, works in 10 sessions. People treated at same cost with flooding than SD

Question 20

What does the cognitive model propose

Answer 20

That individuals who suffer from depression often have distorted and negative thinking
people who think in a very negative/irrational way may be more prone to developing depression
negative/irrational thinking leads to depression

Question 21

Schema

Answer 21

package of ideas developed through experience

Question 22

What three things make up Becks negative triad

Answer 22

Faulty info processing
Negative self-schema
negative triad

Question 23

Faulty info processing

Answer 23

Depressed people think of -ve aspect of situation, ignore +ve
Won £1 million, focus on the fact someone won £10 million.
Blow small problems out of proportion.

Question 24

Negative self-schema

Answer 24

schema- package of ideas developed through experience
Use this to interpret world, -ve self schema = interpret all info about themselves in -ve way

Question 25

negative triad

Answer 25

Stage 1: Negative thoughts about self
Person feels worthless and helpless
Self-criticism is frequent (“I am useless,” “I am no good at Mathematics”)

Stage 2: Negative thoughts about the world
Negative thoughts extend to the world around them
Thinking becomes more global and negative (“I am useless at everything”)

Stage 3: Negative thoughts about the future
Bleak outlook on the future
Leads to low self-esteem and depression
Suicidal thoughts may arise from negative thinking

Question 26

Ellis’s ABC model

Answer 26

Ellis proposed depression stems from irrational beliefs.
He introduced the ABC model:
A: Activating Event triggers negative thinking (e.g., exam failure, job loss).
B: Beliefs encompass rational or irrational thoughts (e.g., feeling useless for failing an exam).
C: Consequences involve emotional responses (e.g., feeling upset).
Patients track events, thoughts, and emotions to understand the connection.
Negative beliefs can lead to various consequences like feeling upset, useless, or demotivated.
This process helps patients challenge and change irrational beliefs to alleviate depression.

Question 27

Masturbatory thinking

Answer 27

Ellis identified “mustabatory thinking” causing irrational, negative thoughts.
Examples include: “I must be loved by everyone” and “I must excel in all areas, otherwise I’m worthless!”
Such beliefs lead to disappointment or depression due to unrealistic ideals and high expectations.

Question 28

+ve for Ellis’ ABC model AO3

Answer 28

application to therapy, helped develop CBT, REBT, which identify, challenge negative, irrational thoughts. Successful treatments.
Evidence supports idea that REBT can change both negative beliefs and relieve symptoms of depression.

Question 29

-ve Ellis’ ABC model AO3

Answer 29

Explains reactive depression and not endogenous depression
reactive depression- ‘life events’
endogenous depression- no life events
Ellis’ ABC model less useful for explaining endogenous depression, partial explanation

Question 30

+ve for Becks -ve triad, AO3

Answer 30

+ve real world application
screening + treatment for depression
Cohen concluded assessing cognitive vulnerabilities allows psychologists to screen young people
identify those at risk, monitor
Can be applied to CBT, which would help alter cognitions which make young people vulnerable, making them more resilient to -ve life events

Question 31

-ve Becks negative triad, AO3

Answer 31

cause and effect is not clear
Can we say that negative and irrational thoughts cause depression to develop; or could we say that depression develops first (from a different source) and then this causes the patient to think in a negative and irrational way
Cause and effect needs to be investigated further so that psychologists can be sure that negative thinking causes depression to occur

Question 32

Who developed cognitive behavioural therapy

Answer 32

Beck

Question 33

What does REBT stand for

Answer 33

Rational emotive behavioural therapy

Question 34

Who developed REBT

Answer 34

Ellis

Question 35

What are the elements in CBT

Answer 35

Cognitive element, client and CBT therapist work together to identify problem. Identify goals. Plan of action. identify irrational thoughts
Behaviour element, change -ve + irrational thoughts, more effective B put back into place.

Question 36

What will you talk about when discussing cognitive approach to treating depression

Answer 36

Becks cognitive therapy
Ellis’ rational emotive behaviour therapy
behaviour activation

Question 37

CBT central ideas

Answer 37

Beck’s central idea: Challenge and restructure negative thinking into positive and rational thoughts.
Focus on present experiences for patient control over thinking.
Positive thinking can influence behavior positively.
Cognitive triad basis: Negative thoughts about self, world, and future addressed.
“Thought catching”: Identifying negative thoughts.
Encouragement to challenge negative thoughts and test their validity.
Keeping records of events to challenge negative thinking.
Reinforcement of positive thoughts for improved self-esteem.

Question 38

Becks cognitive therapy

Answer 38

identify automatic thoughts of world, self, future (-ve triad)
once identified, challenged.
Tests reality of -ve beliefs
Homework- record event they enjoyed
‘client as scientist’
therapist uses this evidence in future sessions to prove they are incorrect

Question 39

Ellis’ REBT

Answer 39

D-dispute
E-effect

client talks about how unlucky they are
REBT therapist identifies as utopianism, challenges I belief
cause vigorous argument
Changes I belief
empirical argument- disputing if there is evidence to support -ve belief.
Logical argument- disputing whether -ve thought logically follows facts

Question 40

Behavioural activation
CBT

Answer 40

individual becomes more depressed, increasingly avoid difficult situations, isolated, worsen symptoms.
Behavioural activation, work with depressed individuals to lower avoidance + isolation.
Improve mood.

Question 41

+ve for CBT for depression AO3

Answer 41

March et al, CBT as effective as antidepressants
327 adolescents, 81% improved in both showing effectiveness.
86% improved with the combination.
More effective with both
CBT first choice treatment in public health systems

However, cognitive treatments + explanations not complete for depression

Question 42

-ve for CBT for depression AO3

Answer 42

requires motivation. May not engage, or attend sessions. Antidepressants easier option. Overemphasises role of cognition, patient suffering domestic abuse X need to change thoughts, but circumstances.

Success depends on therapists skill
he success of the treatment depends upon the skill and expertise of the therapist.
The more skilled the therapist, the better the therapeutic outcomes will be for the depressed client, and this is essential for the treatments effectiveness.
Therefore psychologists need to be highly skilled and develop a good rapport with their client in order for REBT to be successful

Question 43

What does the biological approach assume

Answer 43

assumes that OCD is caused by genetics and neural explanations (such as neurotransmitters and abnormal brain circuits)

Question 44

What will you talk about in the biological approach to explaining OCD

Answer 44

Genetic explanations

candidate genes
OCD is polygenic
Different types of OCD

Neural explanations

the role of serotonin
decision-making systems

Question 45

talk me through the genetic explanation

Answer 45

genes= vulnerability to OCD
Lewis, 37% OCD patients had parents with it, 21% siblings had it.
Runs in family, passed down.
diathesis stress model- some people more likely to develop mental disorder, but not certain. Environmental stress (experience) triggers condition.

Question 46

Candidate genes
(genetic explanations)

Answer 46

Candidate genes increase vulnerability.
Regulate serotonin.
Genes implicated in transport of serotonin across synapse.

Question 47

OCD is polygenic
(genetic explanations)

Answer 47

X single gene, many together, increasing vulnerability
Taylor= 230 genes involved in OCD
Genes studied, associated with action of dopamine, and serotonin, both neurotransmitters play role in regulating mood.

Question 48

Different types of OCD

Answer 48

One group of genes= OCD in one person, may not in another.
aetiologically heterogenous. Origins vary from one person to another

Question 49

neural explanations for OCD

Answer 49

Role of serotonin, decision making systems.

Question 50

Role of serotonin

Answer 50

neurotransmitter serotonin regulates mood. Relate info from one neurone to another.
Low levels serotonin= normal transmission of mood relevant info X take place
experience low moods.
Some cases OCD= reduction in functioning of serotonin systems in brain

Question 51

Decision making systems

Answer 51

Hoarding for example= impaired decision-making
abnoraml functioning of lateral parts of frontal lobe
responsible for logical thinkng, making decisions.

Question 52

+ve for biological approach explaining OCD

Answer 52

Family studies
Lewis et al, 37% parents, 21% siblings.
However, rules out environment, playing role. Reduces complex human behaviour to single gene or brain chemical, considered biologically reductionist
for example, does not consider role of cognition (thinking) or learning in the development of OCD.

Further support from Billet
Twin studies, strong genetic link
meta analysis of 14 twin studies investigating genetic inheritance rate of OCD. MZ twins 2x more likely to develop OCD, compared to DZ.
Since concordance rates never 100%, suggests diathesis stress model may provide better explanation, genetic vulnerability inherited and triggered by stressor in environment.

Question 53

-ve for biological approach, contradicting approaches

Answer 53

The behavioural approach would contradict the genetic explanation for OCD
The two process model would suggest that OCD can be learnt via classical conditioning, and then rewarded through reinforcement (operant conditioning)
The behavioural approach has gained a great deal of support in explaining the cause of OCD, especially as OCD is often treated using behavioural therapies such as exposure (which is similar to systematic desensitisation)

The diathesis stress model would argue that OCD can be caused by a combination of genes and a trigger in the environment (stress)
Therefore genes alone cannot be the only cause of OCD; genes would need to be combined with other factors in order for the disorder to develop
The diathesis stress model would weaken the genetics argument

Question 54

What do SSRI drugs do?

Answer 54

Work in brain on serotonin system
serotonin released by certain neurones
Especially presynaptic neurone, travels across synapse
conveys message to next postsynaptic neurone, then reabsorbed by presynaptic neurone (broken down + reused)

Preventing reabsorption + breakdown= increase levels of serotonin in synapse, stimulates postsynaptic neurone.

Dosage, fluoxetine= 20mg, but can be increased.
Capsule or liquid, 3-4 months of daily use.

Question 55

Combining SSRI’s with other treatments

Answer 55

Drugs + CBT = reduces persons emotional symptoms (depressed, anxious)people with OCD engage more effectively with CBT.

Question 56

Alternatives to SSRI’s

Answer 56

if X effective after 3-4 months, dosage increased, or prescribed with another drug.
Tricyclics- clomipramine, acts on various systems, like serotonin system, more severe side effects, kept in reserve for people who do not respond to SSRI’s
SNRI’s- second line of defence for those who X respond to SSRIs. Increase levels of serotonin, and different neurotransmitter, noradrenaline

Question 57

+ve biological approach treating OCD

Answer 57

Research support
Soomro conducted review examining effectiveness of SSRi’s, more effective than placebos. 17 studies, 70% symptoms reduced, 30% helped by drug combination.
HOWEVER
short term effectiveness. Biological explanations follow nomothetic approach, same treatment for all, without considering individual differences.

cost effective. cheap, good for public health system. CBT requires patients to be motivated, drugs X. More successful for patients

Question 58

-ve biological approach to treating OCD

Answer 58

side effects. small minority X benefit. indigestion, blurred vision, loss of sex drive
1/10= erection problems, weight gain
1/100 aggression and heart problems
low quality of life.