Memory

Question 1

what will you talk about when doing explanations for forgetting: interference?

Answer 1

Types of interference, proactive and retroactive
McGeoch and Mcdonald

Question 2

Forgetting definition

Answer 2

inability to access or recover information that’s been previously stored in memory
when you forget it, it’s inaccessible at the time of attempted retrieval

Question 3

2 main explanations of forgetting

Answer 3

1) interference - includes proactive and retroactive interference
2) retrieval failure due to absence of cues

Question 4

Interference theory

Answer 4

Forgetting occurs in LTM because two memories are in conflict.
This might result in the forgetting or distorting of one memory or the other memory or both memories
There are two types of interference – proactive interference and retroactive interference

Question 5

Proactive interference

Answer 5

When an old memory interferes/disrupts with the recall of a new memory
e.g. a teacher struggling to learn the names of students in her new class because she’s confusing the names with students in her old class

Question 6

Retroactive interference

Answer 6

When a new memory interferes/disrupts with an old memory
e.g. a teacher forgetting the names of students in the old class after learning the names of students in the current class.

Question 7

Why is interference worse when memories are similar

Answer 7

1) In PI previously stored information makes new information more difficult to store
2) In RI new information overwrites previous memories which are similar

Question 8

Research support for interference

Answer 8

McGeoch & McDonald (1931)

Question 9

McGeoch and Mcdonald research

Answer 9

Task Setup:

Six groups learned a list of words until 100% accuracy.
Five groups then learned a new list (interference task), varying in similarity to the original list.
Recall Test:

All participants were asked to recall the original list.
Groups were categorized based on the type of interference:
Group 1: Synonyms
Group 2: Antonyms
Group 3: Unrelated words
Group 4: Nonsense syllables
Group 5: 3-digit numbers
Group 6: No new list (control condition).
Findings:

Control group recalled the most words, indicating minimal interference.
Participants who learned numbers had the highest recall, suggesting numbers don’t interfere with words.
Group exposed to synonyms during interference had the lowest recall.
Interference was evident when the original and interference lists shared similar meanings.
This study supports the idea that interference occurs when two pieces of information are similar.

Question 10

Give me the AO3 for Explanations for forgetting, interference.
Lab study

Answer 10

+ve Supported by controlled lab studies demonstrating both types of interference leading to forgetting in long-term memory (LTM).
McGeoch and McDonald’s study exemplifies support for interference theory.
Lab studies are well-controlled, minimizing extraneous variables.
For instance, McGeoch and McDonald standardized and matched lists on difficulty levels, reducing extraneous variables of lists being too easy or hard.
This lends validity to the idea of interference as an explanation for forgetting.

-ve artificiality and lack of ecological validity: in lab, use meaningless stimuli like three-letter consonant trigrams or simple word lists. Findings may not reflect everyday instances of interference, limiting their applicability to real-world memory scenarios.

Question 11

AO3 for explanations for forgetting, interference
Time between recall

Answer 11

Limitations of Interference research:

Lab experiments often have short time intervals between learning and recall (e.g., 20 minutes).
In real life, longer gaps exist between learning new information.
Supporting research may lack validity and fail to capture real-life interference dynamics.
The role of interference in forgetting, as depicted by lab studies, may be overstated

Question 12

What will you cover in the explanations for forgetting: retrieval failure section?

Answer 12

Retrieval failure due to absence of cues, encoding specificity principle, research on context dependant forgetting ( Godden and Baddeley) and state dependant forgetting (Carter and Cassady)

Question 13

Encoding specificity principle

Answer 13

Tulving and Thomson (1973) proposed the encoding specificity principle. suggests that cues will help retrieval if the same cues are present at coding (when we learn the material) and retrieval (when we recall it).
The closer the retrieval cue to the original cue (the more specific it is), the more effective the cue in triggering the memory
Memory is most effective when information present at encoding is also present at retrieval.
Environmental and mental cues aid recall.
There are two types of retrieval failure due to cue absence:
Context-dependent failure: Environmental cues are missing.
State-dependent failure: Individual’s emotional state is different.

Question 14

Context dependent forgetting definition

Answer 14

Context-dependent forgetting occurs when the environment during recall differs from the environment during learning.
It argues that forgetting happens because the context (environment) of learning differs from the context (environment) of recall.
The absence of the correct cue (environment) leads to difficulty in remembering or recalling information.

Question 15

Godden and Baddeley research

Answer 15

Godden and Baddeley (1975) investigated the effect of contextual cues on recall.
They used a sample of 18 participants from a university diving club.
Participants were divided into four conditions:
Learning words on land and recalling on land.
Learning words on land and recalling underwater.
Learning underwater and recalling underwater.
Learning underwater and recalling on land.
It was found that words learned underwater were better recalled underwater, and words learned on land were better recalled on land.
These results provide clear support for the idea of context-dependent retrieval failure and the idea that context can aid recall.

Question 16

State dependent forgetting definition

Answer 16

State-dependent forgetting occurs when your mood or physiological state during recall differs from the state you were in during learning.
It argues that retrieval failure is due to the absence of the same state of mind at learning and recalling.
Your state of mind was different when learning compared to when recalling, leading to failure to remember.
For example, you may have been drunk when learning the information but sober when recalling it, meaning the cue (feeling drunk) was absent during recall, resulting in retrieval failure.

Question 17

Carter & Cassaday (1998) Method

Answer 17

Ppts were given anti-histamines to control hay fever, inducing slight drowsiness.
Ppts had to learn lists of words and passages of information and then recall them. There were 4 groups:
Group 1: Learned and recalled while on the drug (consistent internal state).
Group 2: Learned without the drug but recalled on the drug (inconsistent internal state).
Group 3: Learned and recalled without the drug (consistent internal state).
Group 4: Learned without the drug but recalled on the drug (inconsistent internal state).
Ppts recalled best when their internal state matched between learning and recall (e.g., drowsy or not drowsy).
Group 1 (learning and recall on the drug) and Group 3 (learning and recall without the drug) performed best.
When there was a mismatch in internal state (e.g., under the influence of the drug in one condition but not the other), performance on memory tests was worse.
Conclusion: Forgetting is more likely when internal cues (such as internal state of drowsiness or alertness) are absent. Forgetting is also more likely if the emotional state is not the same during learning and recall.

Question 18

AO3 for context dependant forgetting

Answer 18

Godden and Baddeley’s research supports the idea of context-dependent retrieval failure.
BUT methodological flaws:
repeated measures design, with each diver participating in all four conditions.
This could have led to demand characteristics or order effects, where participants may have deduced the aim of the experiment and adjusted their behavior accordingly.

4th trial -> ppts may have shown practice effects, improving recall due to repeated exposure, or fatigue effects, leading to decreased performance due to boredom.

The sample size was small, with just 18 divers, suggesting caution in drawing conclusions.

Furthermore, the extreme context examined in their study offers limited insight into context-dependent forgetting in everyday life.

Question 19

Issues and debates for retrieval failure AO3 -ve

Answer 19

Theories of forgetting, including context and state-dependent retrieval failure, take a nomothetic approach to establish general laws regarding forgetting applicable to all humans.
However, such research often relies on small sample sizes and may not accurately reflect memory across all individuals and situations.
Consequently, an idiographic approach investigating forgetting using ppts of different ages + cultures provides more insight into this phenomenon.

Question 20

AO3 retrieval failure, cues don’t always work

Answer 20

Retrieval cues do not always work effectively because our learning is influenced by more than just cues.
Many research studies tend to focus on word lists or passages, which lacks ecological validity.
Our learning experiences extend beyond the classroom setting, encompassing various aspects of life and occurring throughout our lifetime.
Therefore, most studies lack realism and do not provide a comprehensive understanding of retrieval failure as an explanation for forgetting

Question 21

What is the AO1 for factors affecting EWT: Misleading info

Answer 21

research on leading Q’s
Why do leading Q’s affect EWT?
Research on PED
Why does PED affect EWT?

Question 22

What’s Eye-Witness Testimony?

Answer 22

this refers to an account given by people of an event they have witnessed
Definition: the ability of people to remember the detail of events, such as accidents and crimes, which they themselves have observed.

Question 23

What affects EWT

Answer 23

suggested accuracy can be effected by misleading information such as leading questions and post event discussions

Question 24

What’s misleading information

Answer 24

seen as incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event (hence often called ‘post event discussion’).
It can take many forms, such as leading questions and post-event discussion between co-witnesses and/or other people.

Question 25

Leading questions

Answer 25

a question that suggests to the witness what answer is desired, or leads him/her to give a certain answer because of the way it was phrased

Question 26

Studies to support leading questions

Answer 26

Loftus and Palmer

Question 27

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

Answer 27

45 students were shown a video of a car accident and then asked about the speed of the car on impact.
Asked ? “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
verb “hit” was replaced with either “smashed”, “bumped”, “collided”, or “contacted”.
verb used had a significant effect on the estimated speed:
contacted= a mean of 31.8 mph.
smashed=highest estimated speed, mean of 40.5 mph.
Conclusion: Some of the verbs used in the experimenter’s questions were leading, encouraging participants to believe that cars were going faster (in the case of “smashed”) or slower (in the case of “contacted”) than they really were.

Question 28

Post-event discussion

Answer 28

Post event discussion involves when witnesses to an event discuss what they have experienced after the event.

This is argued to affect accuracy of EWT due to:
1) Memory contamination: Witnesses mix information from other witnesses into their own memories
2) Memory conformity: Witnesses pick up details from the eye witness testimony of other witnesses because they want social approval (NSI) or because they believe other witnesses are right (ISI), and they are wrong.

Question 29

Post-event discussion research

Answer 29

Gabbert et al. (2003)

Question 30

Gabbert et al. (2003)

Answer 30

Aim: Investigate post-event discussion effects on eyewitness testimony accuracy.
Method: 60 students and 60 older adults watched a theft video. Tested individually (control) or in pairs (co-witness). Co-witness group discussed the crime, unaware they saw different perspectives.
Results: 71% of co-witness group recalled unseen information (0% in control). 60% believed guilt without witnessing the crime.
Conclusion: Post-event discussion significantly affects eyewitness testimony accuracy, leading to memory contamination or conformity.

Question 31

Loftus and Palmer -ve AO3

Answer 31

Lacks population validity.
Their sample consisted of 150 American students.
It is reasonable to argue that the students in their experiment were less experienced drivers, who may be less accurate at estimating speeds.
Consequently, we are unable to generalize the results to other populations, for example, older and more experienced drivers, who may be more accurate in their judgment of speeds and therefore not as susceptible to leading questions

Question 32

+ve for factors affecting EWT, real world application

Answer 32

Research on misleading information’s impact on eyewitness testimony (ETW) has real-world significance.
Police must carefully phrase questions during witness interviews to prevent memory distortion.
Studies suggest preventing co-witness discussion to avoid memory contamination.
Gabbert’s study found discussing events with others increased false information inclusion.
This research highlights the risks of post-event discussion and has influenced legal efforts to enhance ETW accuracy.

Question 33

-ve for factors affecting EWT, misleading info, lacks validity.

Answer 33

Video-based studies like Loftus’ lack the anxiety and real-time experience of actual events, affecting memory accuracy.
Real-life eyewitness testimony (EWT) has consequences absent in research settings, potentially impacting recall.
Differences between lab conditions and real life challenge the validity of EWT research.
Risk of demand characteristics in lab studies further undermines research validity, as participants may provide socially desirable responses

Question 34

Anxiety effect on EWT

Answer 34

has strong emotional and physical effects on eye witnesses
it is not clear whether these effects make eyewitness recall better or worse
there is research that supports both possibilities

Question 35

Example of high anxiety

Answer 35

the weapon focus effect

Question 36

The weapon focus effect

Answer 36

The weapon-focus effect can induce high anxiety during eyewitness events.
For instance, during a crime, witnesses may observe the perpetrator suddenly pull out a weapon.
This shift in focus from the crime to the weapon increases anxiety levels, a phenomenon known as the weapon-focus effect.
Researchers have utilized this effect to investigate the impact of high anxiety on eyewitness testimony.

Question 37

Johnson and Scott negative affect on recall (weapon focus)

Answer 37

Johnson & Scott (1976) investigated anxiety’s effect on eyewitness testimony (EWT).
Ppts were exposed to either a pen or a bloodied knife wielded by a person known as the target.
They were then shown 50 photos and asked to identify the person.
In the pen condition, participants correctly identified the target 49% of the time, compared to 33% in the knife condition.
Loftus suggested ppts exposed to the knife had higher anxiety levels, leading to the weapon-focus effect and reduced EWT reliability.

Question 38

Yuille and Cutshall, anxiety having +ve effect

Answer 38

Yuille and Cutshall (1986) conducted a real-life case study contradicting Loftus’ (1979) findings.
They investigated the effect of anxiety in a real-life shooting.
Thirteen witnesses participated in follow-up interviews, and their eyewitness accounts remained accurate five months later with little change.
The major details of their reports remained consistent, suggesting that anxiety experienced during the event had little to no effect on subsequent memory or the reliability of their eyewitness testimony (EWT).

Question 39

Yerkes & Dodson Law (1908)

Answer 39

The relationship between emotional arousal and performance follows an inverted ‘U’ shape.
Known as the Yerkes-Dodson Law, it suggests that performance increases with stress up to a certain point, beyond which it decreases.
Deffenbacher (1983) applied this law to Eyewitness Testimony (EWT).
Lower levels of anxiety result in lower recall accuracy, but as anxiety increases, memory accuracy improves.
There’s an optimal level of anxiety where accuracy peaks.
Beyond this point, excessive stress leads to a drastic decline in recall accuracy.
In summary, both too much and too little anxiety negatively impact recall, while moderate levels aid the most accurate recall.

Question 40

-ve Weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety AO3

Answer 40

Pickel (1998) criticized weapon focus effect, proposing that reduced identification accuracy may be due to surprise rather than anxiety.
To test this, participants watched a thief enter a hairdressing salon carrying different items: scissors (high threat, low surprise), handgun (high threat, high surprise), wallet (low threat, low surprise), or a raw chicken (low threat, high surprise).
Identification accuracy was lowest in high surprise conditions (e.g., chicken), rather than high threat conditions.
This suggests that the weapon focus effect may be related more to surprise or unusualness than anxiety.

Question 41

Using field studies to test anxiety affecting EWT, -ve

Answer 41

Yuille and Cutshall’s studies are naturalistic, enhancing ecological validity as participants witnessed real crimes.
However, naturalistic studies are susceptible to confounding variables.
Proximity to the incident may influence anxiety levels and eyewitness accuracy.
Extraneous variables like post-event discussion or subsequent information could impact eyewitness recall.
Consequently, drawing conclusions about anxiety’s effect on EWT accuracy becomes challenging

Question 42

Individual differences, factors affecting EWT, anxiety AO3 -ve

Answer 42

Bothwell et al. (1987) suggested that personality characteristics, rather than anxiety alone, could affect accuracy in event recall.
They found that highly anxious (neurotic) individuals were less accurate when stress levels increased, whereas stable individuals were more accurate.
This study highlights individual differences in anxiety levels and recall accuracy, suggesting that not everyone is affected in the same way.

Question 43

Who developed the cognitive interview and what’s it’s aim

Answer 43

Geiselman et al (1984)
aims to increase the accuracy of witness’ recall of events by providing them with cues to help with retrieval

Question 44

Why did Geisleman criticise the standard interview

Answer 44

Traditional standard police interviews are criticized for employing numerous brief, direct, and closed questions, often interrupting witnesses and restricting free expression.
Leading questions are commonly used, which can distort witness testimony.
Geiselman argued that interruptions break concentration and lead to less detailed answers.
He advocated for providing witnesses with retrieval cues and establishing rapport to enhance recall accuracy.

Question 45

4 principles of cognitive interview

Answer 45

context reinstatement
report everything
reverse order
change perspective

Question 46

Context reinstatement

Answer 46

In the Cognitive Interview (CI), interviewers prompt witnesses to mentally recreate the physical and psychological context of the event.
They may ask questions like, “Recall the scene, weather, and your emotions.”
This technique aims to make memories accessible by providing appropriate contextual and emotional cues.
It’s based on the principles of context-dependent and state-dependent recall.

Question 47

Report everything

Answer 47

Interviewers prompt witnesses to report every detail of the event, even if seemingly irrelevant.
Witnesses are encouraged not to omit anything, as trivial details may aid recall.
This approach minimizes interruptions and allows interconnected memories to surface.
Recollection of small details from multiple witnesses can help form a clearer picture of the event.

Question 48

Recall in changed order

Answer 48

Interviewers may reverse the timeline of events during questioning to minimize the influence of pre-existing schemas on recall.
This technique helps trigger additional memories and prevents dishonesty, as it requires recounting events backward.
By starting from the end, witnesses are prompted to recall details they might otherwise overlook.

Question 49

Recall from changed perspective

Answer 49

Interviewers prompt witnesses to recall the incident from various perspectives to disrupt the influence of schemas on memory.
Schemas are sets of expectations about situations or people.
Witnesses are asked, “Describe the event from different viewpoints, not just your own. For example, what might another person at the scene have observed?”
This approach encourages a more comprehensive account of the event by considering different angles.

Question 50

Enhanced CI

Answer 50

Fisher (1987) developed the Enhanced Cognitive Interview (CI), which can be used independently or with the CI. It includes:

Active listening: nodding, eye contact, and repeating to ensure understanding.
Asking open-ended questions.
Pausing after each response.
Avoiding interruptions.
Encouraging imagery use.
Adapting language to suit the witness.
Avoiding judgmental comments.
Minimizing distractions.

Question 51

limitation of the CI, time consuming AO3 -ve

Answer 51

The Cognitive Interview (CI) can be time-consuming, which may pose challenges for interviewers.
Police may hesitate to use the CI due to its length compared to standard interviews.
In the CI, additional time is required to build rapport with the witness and create a relaxed environment.
However, this extended process can enhance the accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony (EWT).

Question 52

limitation of CI, Lacks ecological validity -ve AO3

Answer 52

Many studies testing the effectiveness of the Cognitive Interview (CI) use volunteers’ Eyewitness Testimony (EWT) in lab settings, which may not reflect real-world scenarios.
For example, Geiselman’s study evaluating the CI involved participants witnessing a staged crime.
Emotional intensity experienced in a staged crime is typically lower than in a real one, as shown in studies on anxiety and EWT.
Therefore, findings from lab studies on the CI may not accurately represent outcomes in real-life situations.

Question 53

strength of CI, research support AO3 +ve

Answer 53

Gieselman et al. (1985) conducted a study where participants watched videos of a staged crime and were later tested using different interview techniques: cognitive interview, standard police interview, or hypnosis.
The cognitive interview generated more information compared to the other techniques.
Furthermore, Gieselman et al. (1986) conducted a study where participants witnessed a staged theft involving a man with a blue rucksack.
Two days later, participants were questioned using either a standard or cognitive interview procedure.
Participants in the cognitive interview condition were less likely to recall the color of the rucksack as green compared to those in the standard interview condition.
This suggests that the cognitive interview reduces the effect of leading questions.