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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is statistical infrequency

A

When an individual has a a less common characteristic to the population in terms of statistics

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2
Q

Explain this idea

A

People who fall into the general statistic for a certain characteristic are classified as normal but people are pronounced as abnormal is they don’t show the same characteristic

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3
Q

What is the normal distribution

A

This is the idea that for a certain characteristic people tend to cluster around a certain average score

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4
Q

What’s the normal distribution for IQ

A

Average IQ 100 (68%) of people have a score from 85 to 115 which only 2% of people scoring below 70 these people are classified as abnormal

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5
Q

What is deviation from social norms

A

Behaviour that is different from the accepted standards for society

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6
Q

What determines this norm

A

Society decides what is classifed as normal with it varying between different social groups or eras in time. There are very little behaviours which are deemed as universally abnormal

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7
Q

Example for social norms

A

Homosexuality considered abnormal in the Uk past but now is legalised and commonly accepted but in places like Brunei there are laws (2019) that enforce punishment in this case death

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8
Q

What is the DSM-5

A

manual used by psychiatrists to classify mental health disorders

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9
Q

What an example of deviation from social norms

A

Antisocial personality disorder, causes irresponsible and aggressive actions which are caused by lack of moral standards and acceptance of social norm

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10
Q

Evaluation points:

A
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11
Q

Real world application(statistical infreq)

A

A strength of statistical infrequency is its usefulness.
used in clinical practice for diagnosis
Eg intellectual disability IQ below 70.
Beck depression inventory assessment tool, people with a score of 30+ are interpreted as severely depressed
Shows its use in diagnostic and assessment processes

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12
Q

Unusual characteristics may be positive(statistical infreq)

A

Limitation is that the characteristic could be positive as well as negative.
Eg people with IQs above 130
If someone gets really low on BDI(becks depression inventory it isn’t seen as abnormal)
It is useful but isn’t sufficient as the sole basis to define abnormality

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13
Q

Real world application(dev from social norms)

A

Strength being its usefulness in the real world
Key feature of psychopathy is failure to conform to culturally accepted behaviour. Also used in diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder where strange used to evaluate way of thinking looks and actions

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14
Q

Cultural and situational relativism

A

Limitation is variability of social norms between different culture and eras
Peoples labelling of abnormality is do with moral standards and cultures
Eg aggressive and manipulative behaviour is more accepted in corporate deal making compared to a family context.
Difficult to tell if someone is truly abnormal as there is no real standard only assumptions

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15
Q

What is failure to function adequately

A

When someone isn’t able to cope with the ordinary demands of day to day life

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16
Q

What counts as failure to function adequately

A

Being unable to maintain good hygiene, being unable to hold down a job or maintain healthy relationships with those around them

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17
Q

Who cam up with the signs that someone may be FTFA

A

David Rosenhan and Martin Seligman(1989)
-cant maintain standard of interpersonal rules(eye contact)
-Severe personal distress
-A persons behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves

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18
Q

What is deviation from ideal mental health

A

When someone doesn’t met criteria for good mental health

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19
Q

What does ideal mental health look like and who came up with it?

A

Marie Jahoda(1958) came up with these criteria
- No symptoms of distress
-ration and perceive ourselves accurately
- self actualise(strive to reach potential)
-cope with strss
-realistic view of the world
- good self esteem and lack guilt
-independent of other people
-can successfully work love and leisure

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20
Q

Evaluation points:

A
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21
Q

Represents a threshold for help(FTFA)

A

Strength is that it sets a good threshold for professional help
most people have some symptoms of mental health disorder 25% of people will have mental health problems in a given year
This criteria suggests people who require help the most are able to receive it

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22
Q

Discrimination and social control(FTFA)

A

A limitation of FTFA is that it is easy to label non standard lifestyles as abnormal. Eg people may not be having problems with functioning adequately instead they may be choose to deviate form the normal standards eg those who partake in high risk activities
Means people who make unusual choices are labelled as being abnormal

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23
Q

Comprehensive definition(IMH)

A

Strength is that is has a comprehensive definition
range of criteria from distinguishing mental health from mental health disorder,
Mental health is discussed meaningfully which different views. Provides a checklist for to asses ourselves and others

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24
Q

May be culture bound

A

A limitation is that is that there are different elements which are not applicable across cultures

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25
Q

what is a phobia

A

an irrational fear of a situation or object

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26
Q

What types of characteristics are there in phobias

A

Behavioural(how we act), emotional(how we feel or our mood, cognitive(knowing reasoning, thinking, remembering and believing)

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27
Q

explain phobias

A

excessive fear and anxiety triggered by object place or situation, the extent of fear is out of proportion to the real danger(phobic stimulus)

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28
Q

what are the types of phobia

A

specific- of an object animal body part of a situation
social- phobia of social situation such as public speaking
agoraphobia- being outside/ public space

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29
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of phobias

A

Panic- extreme fear in presence of phobic stimulus( crying, screaming, running away), children tend to freeze or have a tantrum
Avoidance- someone makes a conscious effort to prevent contact with phobic stimulus eg spending less time outside
endurance- A person chooses to stay in the presence of phobic stimulus eg spider on the ceiling

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30
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias

A

Anxiety- phobia is an anxiety disorder, an unpleasant state of high arousal stopping a person rom relaxing or feeling positive emotion(can be long term)
fear- fear is a immediate and unpleasant response to phobic stimulus . More intense but shorter lived
unreasonable emotional response- fear/ anxiety is disproportionate to the actual threat. eg screaming at a small spider

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31
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

A

selective attention- hard to look away from the stimulus. keeping attention on it is best wat to react if there is a threat (natural response) but not useful if fear is irrational.
irrational beliefs- may have unfounded thoughts in relation to phobic stimulus . eg if you blush people thing you weak no basis behind it
cognitive distortion- unrealistic perception of the phobia

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32
Q

What is depression

A

mental health disorder characterised by low mood or low energy levels

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33
Q

Categories of depression

A

major depressive disorder- short term but severe
persistent depressive disorder- long term recurring depression
disruptive mood dysregulation disorder- childhood temper tantrums
premenstrual dysphoric disorder- disruption of mood prior/ during menstruation

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34
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of depression

A

Activity levels- low energy levels (lethargic) which causes withdrawal from day to day activities, in some cases it can have the opposite agitated effect(psychomotor agitation)
disruption to sleep/eating- reduced sleep(insomnia), too much(hypersomnia). changes in eating patterns results in weight lost or gained.
aggression and self harm- very irrigatable, and aggressive. (affects life). aggression can also be to self

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35
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of depression

A

lowered mood: someone feels sad, negative feeling of emptiness or worthlessness
anger: may experience more negative than positive emotions like anger. can be directed to self or others
lowered self esteem- how much we like ourselves reduced. some people can even get to a point where they hate themselves

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36
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of depression

A

poor concentration: may be stuck with a normal task or making simple decisions. interferes with an individuals work
attending/ dwelling on the negative- pay attention to more negative aspects of life, bias toward unhappy events
absolutist thinking- thinking that situation are either good or bad(black-white thinking) a bad situation may seem as the end of the world.

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37
Q

what is OCD

A

condition characterised by obsession and compulsions. obsessions cognitive whilst compulsions are behavioural

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38
Q

What are the types OCD

A

OD- obsessions(reoccurring thoughts) or compulsions which are repetitive behaviours
trichotillomania- compulsive hair hulling
hoarding disorder - compulsive gathering possessions and inability to part with anything
excoriation disorder- compulsive skin pulling

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39
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of OCD

A

anxiety and distress- unpleasant experience because of strong anxiety that controls the compulsions, obsessive thoughts worrying and frightening, the urge to repeat a behaviour creates anxiety
accompanying depression- low mood and lack of enjoyment for activities compulsions bring release of anxiety
guilt/ disgust- negative emotions such as irrational guilt, minor moral issues or disgust in things such as dirt

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39
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD

A

Compulsions are repetitive: compelled to repeat behaviour, cleaning ordering, tidying
compulsions reduce anxiety- 10% of people with OCD have compulsions alone. Done to reduce the anxiety. eg washing hands repetitively for hygiene
avoidance- attempt to reduce anxiety and stay away from things that trigger it. eg people who are obsessed with washing their hands they are more likely to avoid germs in the first place

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39
Q

behavioural approach

A

a way of explaining behaviour in terms of using what is observable

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39
Q

what is the two way process model

A

explanation for the onset and persistence of disorders that create anxiety

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39
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of OCD

A

Obsessive thoughts- 90% of people with OCD have obsessive thoughts that recur, varying with the person.
Cognitive coping strategies- people adopt coping strategies to deal with obsessions eg praying or meditating to help manage the anxiety
insight into excessive anxiety- they are aware that the compulsions are not rational. If they believed it was real it would be a different mental order all together. but they still tend to have these thoughts and scenarios as if they were real

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40
Q

Behavioural approach to treating phobias

A
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40
Q

operant conditioning

A

behaviour is maintained and shaped by consequences. positive and negative reinforcement

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40
Q

classical conditioning

A

learning by association. when two stimuli are paired. unconditioned stimulus(UCS) and new neutral stimulus(NS), neutral stimulus then produces same response as unconditioned stimulus alone

40
Q

who proposed the two way process model

A

Orval Hobart mower(1960) classical and operant conditioning

41
Q

Acquisition by classical conditioning

A

association of something we have no fear of (neutral stimulus NS) with something that triggers a fear response(unconditioned stimulus)

42
Q

Little Albert study what else triggered distress

A

Other things that seemed similar to the rat eg fur coat, non white rabbit

43
Q

Little Albert study

A

John Watson and Rosaline Rayner(1920). Albert had no anxiety at the beginning of the study. When a white rat was presented to him he tried to play with it. but to create a phobia Watson made a banging sound whenever the rat was presented. The noise(unconditioned stimulus) creates an unconditioned response(UCR). When the rat (neutral stimulus NS) are encountered close together they become associated to produce a fear response. The rat is now a conditioned stimulus (CS)for albert and produces a conditioned response(CR).

44
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Responses from classical conditioning disappear over time, but can be maintained by operant. Done when a behaviour is reinforced or punished. reinforcements increases behaviour frequency for positive and negative reinforcement.

45
Q

What is positive/negative reinforcement

A

negative is when an individual avoids a situation that is unpleasant, avoiding the phobic stimuli and the relief causes a reduction in fear but reinforces the behaviour and the phobia is maintained. Positive is when an individual is rewarded for doing a certain behaviour.

46
Q

Evaluation

A
47
Q

Real-world application

A

Strength is real-world application in exposure therapies
main idea of 2 way process model is that phobias maintained by avoidance
explains why it is important to be in the presence of the phobic stimuli
when avoidance is stopped the reinforcement declines and phobia cured
identifies a means of treating phobias

47
Q

Phobias& traumatic experiences

A

a strength evidence for link between bad experiences & phobias
little albert shows how frightening experiences link to phobic stimulus
Ad De Jongh et all 73% of people with fear of dental treatment have had a traumatic experience
control group with no fear only had 21% with traumatic experience
confirms association between stimulus and unconditioned response

48
Q

Cognitive aspects of phobias

A

Limitation of 2 way process model it doesn’t account for conductive aspects
geared to explain behaviour
phobias are not simply avoidance responses( large cognitive component) eg irrational beliefs.
doesnt completely explain two process model

49
Q

What is systematic desensitisation

A

behavioural therapy used to reduce unwanted response such as anxiety. hierarchy of things that cause anxiety and teaching a person to relax in these situations

50
Q

What is flooding

A

someone is exposed to extreme form of phobic stimulus to reduce anxiety triggered by stimulus

51
Q

Systematic desensitisation

A

behavioural therapy to gradually reduce phobic anxiety using classical conditioning. new response to stimulus is learned(counterconditioning)
1. anxiety hierarchy put together(order of phobic stimulus) from least to most frightening
2. relaxation, tries to make patient as calm as possible. impossible to be relaxed and afraid one inhibits the other (Reciprocal inhibition) eg meditation
3.Exposure whilst in relaxed state over several sessions the client is released into the presence of the phobic stimulus starting with the bottom of the hierarchy. As the client becomes more calm in these situations they are then moved up the hierarchy

52
Q

Flooding

A

doesn’t have a gradual build up the person is straight away released into the phobic stimulus eg spider crawling over you
the client quickly learns the the phobia is harmless( called extinction). Learned response is extinguished when the conditioned stimulus is encountered without the unconditioned stimulus. No fear response produced, relaxation in phobic stimulus because they are exhausted from their own fear response
Not unethical but the client needs to give consent as it can be traumatic

53
Q

People with learning disabilities

A

strength is that it is useful for people with learning disabilities
people with requirement for treatment of phobias have learning disabilities. Alternates to SD aren’t suitable eg cognitive therapy
so it is most valuable for those with disabilities

54
Q

Evaluation
EVIDENCE OF EFFECTIVENESS

A

Evidence(SD)
strength is that is has evidence
Lisa Gilroy et all(2003) 42 people who had phobia for spiders and were put in 3 45 min sessions. after 33 months the SD group were less fearful than control group that were treated without exposure
concluded SD is effective for specific phobia and social phobia and agoraphobia

55
Q

Cost effective(flooding)

A

Highly cost effective, it is effective at tackling symptoms
Cost effective effective and not expensive
Can work in one session compared to 10 for SD longer sessions of flooding are most cost effective

56
Q

Traumatic

A

Limitation is that it is highly unpleasant
can provoke tremendous anxiety
Sarah Schumacher et al 2015 found that participants and therapists found flooding more stressful than SD. Raises ethical issue as it is causing patients stress but they do have informed consent. Higher dropout(attrition rates)
therapists may avoid using it as much as possible

57
Q

What is the cognitive approach

A

mental processes, so this appraoch is to do with how our mental processes affect out behaviour

58
Q

What is the negative triad

A

Beck proposed 3 kinds of negative thinking that controbute to depression: negative views of self, futur and then the world . Lead people to interpret their experiences in a negative way

59
Q

What is the ABC model

A

Ellis proposed that depression occurs be an activiating event (A) that causes irrational belifs(B) that turn into a consequences

60
Q

what is faulty information processing

A

The idea that depressed people tend to look more toward the negative aspects of life instead of the good in a black-and-white manner.

61
Q

What is a negative self schema

A

Schema is a package of ideas and information develiped through experience, acts as a framework for interpretation of sensory information. self schema is how people see themselves. negative self schema is the idea that they interpret information about themselves in a negative way

62
Q

explain the negative triad

A

neg view of the world: idea that the world is a cold place and there is no hope
negative view of the future: economy isnt going to get better, results in hopelessness and even giving up
negative view of self- “ i am a failure” , enhance already negative thinking by conforming to already existing negative thoughts

63
Q

Explain the ABC model

A

ellis proposed that good mental health is made up of rational thinking and mental health problems are caused by irrational thoughts
Activating event: irration thoughts triggered by external events or negative experiences eg breaking up
beliefs: belief that we must always succed is called musturbation, utopianism is the idea tht life is supposed to be fair
consequences:emotional/ behavioural consequences such as depresion

64
Q

Evalutation

A
65
Q

Reasearch support negative triad

A

strength is existence of supportive reaserach
cognitive vulnrability is a way of thinking that may lead to them being depressed in the future.
David CLark & Aaron Beck 1999 concluded that these cognitive vulnerabilties were common in depressed peopled. Association between cognitive vulnerability and depression

66
Q

what other research support is there for the cognitive vulnerability

A

Cohen et al(2019) 473 adolescents measured their cognitive vulunterability, those that showed this vulnerability were later predicted depression

67
Q

Real world application

A

strength, application in screening and treatment for depression.
Cohen et al concluded that assesing cognitive vulnerability allows psychologists to screen young people and see who is most at risk to developing depression. Can also be applied to CBT(cognitive behavioural therapy) Work by alterining cognitions that make people vulnerable to depression making them less vulnerable to negative life events
understanding cognitive vulnerability is more useful than one aspect of clinical practice

68
Q

Real world application

A

A strength of Ellis ABC model is real world application.
used in rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) arguing with a depressed person to alter irrational beliefs that make them sad. REBT has evidence David et al 2018 it can change negative beliefs and relieve symptoms real world value

69
Q

Reactive and endogenous depression

A

One limiation is that it only explains reactive depression and not endogenois. Usally a trigger or activating event but some cases are less obvious where the depression stems from ( endogenous) . can only explain some cases so it is a partial explaination

70
Q

What is CBT

A

method for treating mental health disorder. Aims to deal with thinking and challenging negative thoughts can use behavioural technqiues such as behavioural activation

71
Q

what are irrational thoughts

A

thoughts that are likely to interfere with a persons happiness which can lead to mental health disorders

72
Q

What are the two elements of CBT

A

cognitive element: client works with patient to evaluate the actual problems and identify goals they plan to achieve also done to identify irrational thoughts
behaviour element: putting more effective behaviours in place

73
Q

CBT

A

Identifies negative thoughts about future self and world, then must be challenged.
also helps clients test reality of their negative beliefs, might set homeworks. Client acts as a scientist investigating realtity of their negative beliefs. Then in the future the scientist can use the evidence against them to dispute negative thoughts

74
Q

Elllis rational emotive behaviour therapy

A

ABCDE d meaning dispute and e meaning effect. Identify and dispute irrational thougts.
Eg chaning thoughts about utopianism through vigorous arguing to break the link between negative life events

75
Q

what is empirical disputing

A

to see whether there is actual evidence to support the negative beliefs

76
Q

what is logical disputing

A

disputing wheter the negative thoughts logically follows from facts

77
Q

what is behavioural activation

A

when someone gets depressed they tend to become more isolated which maintains the symptoms. The goal of behavioural activism is to decrease the isolation and increase engagement with activities that have been shown to increase mood

78
Q

Evaluation for effectiveness

A

strength for CBT is large amount of evidence supporting its effectiveness
John March et al 2007 compared CBT to antidepressants and a combiation to 327 adolescents. 81% of CBT group, 81% of antidepressant group and 86% of the both group significantly improved showing CBT is just as effective as a treatment to antipressants
Usally short 6-12 sessions and it is cost effective
can be used in public health care systems

79
Q

Sustainability for a diveristy of clients

A

A limitation of CBT is that it has a lack of effectiveness for extremely severe cases & learning disabilities. In some cases people cannot motivate themselves to work with the therapist . people with disabilities my struggle to focus and complex thinking may also be difficult.
(Peter surrey suggests that general psychotherapy(talking) isn’t suitable for people with mental health issues
only appropriate for specific people

80
Q

what is the biological approach

A

emphasises importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function

81
Q

Genetic explanations

A

genes make up chromosomes in which consists of DNA that cods for our physical features. transmitted through offspring

82
Q

Neural explanations

A

physical and psychological characteristics are determined by the behaviour of our nervous system and the brain

83
Q

Aubrey Lewis genetic explanation study

A

(1936) observed his patients 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD suggests OCD runs in the family passed from generations

84
Q

what is the diathesis stress model

A

some genes leave people more likely to develop a mental health disorder, environment stress necessary to trigger this condition though

85
Q

candidate genes

A

genes that create vulnerability to OCD, some are to do with regulating serotonin development.

86
Q

candidate gene example

A

5HT1-D beta is implicated in serotonin transport across synapse

87
Q

OCD is polygenic

A

caused by a combination of genes working together to bring about vulnerability.

88
Q

Polygenetic evidence

A

Steven Taylor(2013) analysed previous studies and found around 230 different genes are involved in OCD, genes that are related to action of dopamine as well as serotonin both neurotransmitters pay a role in regulating mood

89
Q

what are the types of OCD

A

group of genes that causes OCD in one person may cause another disorder in another(aetiologically heterogenous).

90
Q

role of serotonin

A

regulates mood, also responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another
low serotonin causes transmission of mood relevant information to be affected

91
Q

Decision making systems

A

hoarding disorder seem to be to do with impaired faction on frontal lobes of the brain which control decision making. left parahippocampal gyrus for controlling unpleasant emotions functions abnormally

92
Q

Evaluation

A
93
Q

Research support

A

strength for genetic explanation is that there is strong evidence
Twin studies Gerald Nestadt et al(2010) reviewed twins and found 68% of identical twins shared OCD compared to 31% of non identical twins. Family studies, a person with another family member with OCD is 4x more likely to get OCD themselves
strong genetic influence of development of OCD

94
Q

Environmental risk factors

A

A limitation of genetic model of OCD is environmental risk factors
not entirely genetic origin environmental factors also increase risk of OCD.
Kiara Cromer et al (200&0 found half the OCD clients in the sample experienced traumatic events in their past more severe OCD had more traumatic experiences

95
Q

Research support(neural model)

A

strength evidence supporting it
antidepressants are used purely serotonin to reduce OCD symptoms. OCD symptoms for part of conditions that are known for biological origin like Parkinson’s disease(degenerative brain disorder) if biological processes underlie OCD it suggests that biological factors are responsible for OCD.

96
Q

No unique neural system

A

A limitation of the neural model is that serotonin-OCD link isn’t unique to only OCD
many people with OCD also have depression(co-morbidity). Depression probably caused by disruption of serotonin action. could be that serotonin activity is disrupted in many people with OCD because they are also depressed. Serotonin may have no relevance to OCD

97
Q

what is drug therapy

A

treatment involving drugs, that have an effect on the brain or part of the body. For psychological disorders these drugs have an effect on neurotransmitter levels

98
Q

What are SSRI

A

type of antidepressant selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Serotonin released by certain neurons in the brain released by presynaptic neurons and travel across synapses

99
Q

How do SSRIS work

A

Neurotransmitter conveys a signal from presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron then it is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron where it is broken down and reused. SSRI stop the reuptake of serotonin in the presynaptic neuron and continue to stimulate post synaptic neuron

100
Q

what average dosage of SSRI(fluxetine)

A

20mg can be increased

101
Q

Combining treatments

A

Also used alongside CBT. drugs used to reduce emotional symptoms so they can engage with CBT. Depends on the person and how well they respond

102
Q

Alternatives to SSRI

A

Tricyclics- sometimes used(clomipramine) acts on various systems but in serotonin system it has same effects as SSRI but it has side effects so generally used as a last resort
SNRI- recently used to treat OCD, increase levels of serotonin as well as other transmitter noradrenaline

103
Q

Evaluation

A
104
Q

Evidence of effectiveness

A

strength of drug treatment is the evidence for effectiveness. clear evidence SSRI reduce quality of life for people with OCD. Mustafa Soomro et al(2009) reviewed 17 studies and compared SSRIs to placebos.
people with SSRI showed better outcomes than placebo conditions 70% reduction for people taking SSRIs and 30% can be helped with alterative methods

105
Q

Cost effective/ non disruptive

A

they are cheap compared to psychological treatments as it is very easy to make the tablets and much easier to take than a long therapy session. Good value for public health care systems eg NHS. Non disruptive to peoples lives take until symptoms decline

106
Q

Serious side effects

A

some people have no benefit
side effects such as indigestion, blurred vision of loss of sex drive temporary for most people but for the minority can last a while. tricyclic clomipramine has more serious side effects. 1 in 10 have erection problems and weight gain whilst 1 in 100 have aggressive heart related problems
reduces quality of life and may also deter them from taking it all together.

Alevel Psychology (6 decks)

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