Psychopathology

Question 1

What is a social norm ?

Answer 1

these are created by a group of individuals and is deemed as ‘normal behaviour’ because they are practised regularly in the social group, and the majority of individuals will partake in this normal activity.

Question 2

What is deviating from social norms ?

Answer 2

this is where an individual deviates from the norms set by a social group.

Question 3

Give me an evaluation for deviating from social norms.

Answer 3

Strength: applicable
deviation from social norms is used in clinical practise. For example it can help with the diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder.
Weakness: lack of reliability
social norms can differ in different cultures. A person from one cultural group could label someone from another culture group as abnormal using their standards instead of the persons standards. For example in some countries it is normal to experience hearing noises whereas for example in the UK it would be seen as abnormal.

Question 4

What is meant by the term failure to function adequately ?

Answer 4

this is where an individual cannot cope with the demands of everyday life, someone can be deemed to not function properly when they are unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition and hygiene.

Question 5

Give me an evaluation for failure to function adequately.

Answer 5

Strength: it represents a sensible threshold for when people need professional help. Most people seek professional help when they cease to function adequately, therefore this is a good sign or a good indicator to know then you need proper help.

Weakness: it is very hard to tell when someone is failing to function or if they have just chosen to deviate from social norms. For example not having a job or permanent job could be seen as failing to function properly, however some might choose this lifestyle as they prefer to live of the grid.

Question 6

What is meant by the term deviation from ideal mental health ?

Answer 6

this is when someone does not meet the 8 set of criteria for good mental health, which are:
* we have no symptoms of distress
* we are rational and can perceive ourselves accurately
* we strive to reach our potential
* we can cope with stress
* we have a realistic view of the world
* we have a good self-esteem and lack guilt
* we are independent of other people
* we can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure

Question 7

Give me an evaluation for the deviation from ideal mental health ?

Answer 7

Strength: highly informative. Covers most of the reasons to why we might seek help with our mental health. Therefore this means that an individuals mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a trained professional.
Weakness: Jahoda’s criteria is not applicable in all cultures. For example the value placed on self independence is different in Italy compared to Germany. Therefore this shows how the concept of ideal mental health cannot be applied to all cultures.

Question 8

What does the term statistical infrequency mean ?

Answer 8

this is where you define abnormality through using statistical infrequency, therefore the mean, mode and median.

Question 9

Give me an evaluation for statistical infrequency.

Answer 9

Strength: Applicable
statistical infrequency is used in clinical practise as a part of a diagnosis. For example a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ of below 70, so the bottom 2% of a graph.
Weakness: one limitation of statistical infrequency is that infrequent characteristics can be positive as well as negative. For example we not deem someone as abnormal if they had a high IQ of 130. Therefore it shows that although statistical infrequency can form part of diagnostic procedures it cannot be the sole basis for defining abnormality

Question 10

What is the purpose of DSM ?

Answer 10

it is a system for classifying and diagnosing mental health problems

Question 11

What are the 3 categories of a phobia ?

Answer 11

• Behavioural
• Emotional
• Cognitive

Question 12

Whare the 3 Behavioural Characteristics of phobias ?

Answer 12

1. Panic: an individual may become anxious or stressed when in the presence of a phobic stimulus
2. Avoidance: put a lot of effort to prevent coming in contact with the phobic stimulus. May affect day-to-day life
3. Endurance: when the person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus

Question 13

What are 2 emotional characteristics of phobias ?

Answer 13

1. Anxiety: an unpleasant state of high arousal when we encounter the phobic stimulus
2. Unreasonable emotional response: the anxiety or fear is much greater than normal and disproportionate to any threat posed.

Question 14

What are 3 cognitive characteristics of phobias?

Answer 14

1. Selective attention to Phobic stimulus: keeping out attention on something really dangerous is a good thing as it gives us the best chance of reacting quickly to a threat. However not useful when fear is irrational. A person with pogonophobia will struggle to concentrate on what they are doing if there is someone with a beard in the room.
2. Irrational Beliefs: a person with a phobia may hold beliefs that cant be easily explained. Eg: people with social phobias can have beliefs such as ‘ I always seem intelligent’. This kind of belief increases the pressure on the person to perform well in social situations.
3. Cognitive Distortions: the perceptions of a person with a phobia may be inaccurate and unrealistic. For example someone with mysophobia sees mushrooms as disgusting.

Question 15

What are the two processes of explaining phobias ?

Answer 15

Stage 1: Acquisition of phobia ( how it is learned)
Stage 2: Maintenance of phobia ( how it keeps going )

Question 16

Explain the first stage of explaining phobias ?

Answer 16

an individual acquires a phobia through classical conditioning. An example of classical conditioning is the Little Albert Experiment. Before classical conditioning Little Albert had no problem with the white rat it was an unconditioned stimulus. However before the unconditioned stimulus Little Albert did have a fear of loud noises. Then during classical conditioning, whenever Little Albert saw the white rat the psychologists would create a large noise. Therefore Little Albert would become scared and cry. Then after classical conditioning. Even without the loud noises whenever Little Albert saw the white rat he would become scared. This fear then generalized to other furry objects such as Santa and rabbits. This shows how a phobia can develop.

Question 17

Explain the second stage of explaining phobias ?

Answer 17

an individual maintains a phobia through operant conditioning. The two process of operant conditioning is negative reinforcement and punishment. Negative reinforcement is when you take something pleasant away. However this increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. Punishment is simply punishing an individual. This decreases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again.

Question 18

Give me an evaluation for the two-process model ?

Answer 18

Weakness: lack of validity
the two process model is geared towards explaining behavior, however does not offer an adequate explanation for phobic cognitions. This shows how the the two-process model does not completely explain the symptoms of phobias.
Strength: Supportive evidence
the two-process model shows how there is evidence for a link between bad experiences and phobias. The Little Albert Study illustrates how a frightening experience involving a stimulus can lead to a phobia of that stimulus. This shows how the association between stimulus and unconditioned response does not lead to the development of the phobia.
Weakness: some aspects of phobias can be better explained by the evolutionary theory. For example we tend to acquire phobias of things that have presented a danger in our evolutionary past. This is called preparedness.

Question 19

What are the two methods in treating phobias ?

Answer 19

• Systematic desensitization
• Behavioral Therapy

Question 20

What is Systematic desensitization ?

Answer 20

this is behavioral therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety, through the principle of classical conditioning. If a person can learn to relax in the presence of a phobic stimulus they can be cured.

Question 21

What are the 3 main process in Systematic desensitization ?

Answer 21

1. Anxiety Hierarchy
   made by the patient and therapist, from least to most frightening
2. Relaxation Techniques
   taught to patient as deeply as possible, or mental techniques, meditation or drugs.
3. Exposure
   gradually expose one hierarchy at a time and progress is made when the patient can fully relax.

Question 22

What is flooding ?

Answer 22

flooding involves exposing people with a phobia to their phobic stimulus. This is where you expose a person to a very frightening situation from the start. One session of flooding last for up to 2-3 hours. However one session can be enough to cure a phobia.

Question 23

What does the term extinction mean ?

Answer 23

this is where the client realizes that they cannot avoid the thing that they are afraid off, therefore they quickly learn that it is harmless.

Question 24

Give me an evaluation of Systematic Desensitization ?

Answer 24

Strength: is that it is effective
Lisa Gilroy followed up 42 people who had SD for spider phobia in three 45 minute sessions. At both 3 and 33 months, the SD group were less fearful than a control group treated by relaxation without exposure. This means that SD is likely to be helpful for people with phobias.
Strength: it can be used to treat people with learning disabilities. Some people who need treatment for a phobia also have a learning disability. People with learning disabilities often struggle with cognitive therapies that require a high level of rational thought. In addition people with learning disabilities may also feel confused and distressed by the traumatic experience of flooding. This shows how there is no other appropriate alternative other than SD and shows how it is the most appropriate treatment for people with learning disabilities who have phobias.

Question 25

Give me an evaluation for flooding.

Answer 25

Strength: highly cost effective
A therapy is cost-effective if it is clinically effective and not expensive. Flooding can be done in as little as one session and can have the same effect as SD, which needs like 10 sessions.
Weakness: highly unethical
confronting an individuals phobic stimulus in extreme form can cause high levels of anxiety. Schumacher found that participants and therapists rated flooding as significantly more stressful than SD. This raises ethical concerns of psychologist knowingly inflicting psychological harm onto their patients, however this is not a serious issue if consent is issued. However due to the traumatic events of flooding attrition rates increase massively.

Question 26

What are behavioural characteristics of depression ?

Answer 26

• Activity levels: reduced levels of energy, can lead to people not wanting to go to work, school and socialise
• Changes in sleep/eating behaviour: an individual may experience reduced levels of sleep, and appetite may increase/decrease therefore leading to weight loss/gain
• Aggression/self harm: people can become irritable, therefore can become verbally/physically aggressive. This can lead them to ending their relationship or job

Question 27

What are emotional characteristics of depression ?

Answer 27

*lowered mood

• anger
• lowered self-esteem

Question 28

What are cognitive characteristics of depression ?

Answer 28

• poor concentration
• dwelling on the negative: people are more inclined to focus on the negative aspects of a situation
• Absolutist thinking: when a person is depressed they address the situation as all-good or all-bad, better known as ‘black and white thinking’

Question 29

What was Ellis’s ABC model ?

Answer 29

this was a belief created in 1962 that good mental health is a result of rational thinking, this is thinking that allows people to be happy and free from pain.

Question 30

What did Ellis define irrational thoughts as in his ABC model ?

Answer 30

he believed that these thoughts rooted from depression and anxiety. And these are thoughts that interfere with us being happy and free from pain.

Question 31

Why did Ellis create the ABC model ?

Answer 31

to explain how irrational thoughts affect our behaviour and emotional state

Question 32

What did the ABC model consist of ?

Answer 32

Activating event: Ellis believes we get depressed when we experience negative events and these trigger irrational beliefs, such as failing an important test

Beliefs: Ellis identified a range of irrational beliefs. ‘Musturbation’: this is the belief that we must always succeed. ‘I-cant-stand-it-itis’ is the belief that something is a major disaster if something does not go smoothly. ‘ Utopianism’ this is the belief that life is always meant to be fair.

Consequences: when an activating event triggers an irrational thought there are emotional/behavioural consequences. For example, if a person believes that they must always succeed and then fails it can trigger depression.

Question 33

Give me an evaluation of Ellis’s ABC model ?

Answer 33

Strength: real world application in treating depression
Ellis developed an approach which is known as REBT. REBT works on the basis that if a therapist constantly argues with a depressed person they can alter their irrational beliefs. There is evidence that REBT has relieved some symptoms of depression

Weakness: Ellis’s ABC model explain only reactive depression and not endogenous depression.

Question 34

What is Beck’s negative triad ?

Answer 34

this is a cognitive approach published by Aaron Beck in 1967 that states that it is a persons way of thinking that create this vulnerability.

Question 35

What are the 3 parts of Beck’s negative triad

Answer 35

• Faulty information processing
• Negative self-schema
• The negative triad

Question 36

What is the faulty information processing part of Beck’s negative triad ?

Answer 36

this is where depressed people focus on the negatives of a situation and ignore the positives. This could be referred to as black and white thinking.

Question 37

What is the negative schema part of Beck’s negative triad ?

Answer 37

this is where if a person has a negative schema they interpret all information about themselves in a negative way

Question 38

What is the negative triad part of Beck’s negative triad ?

Answer 38

Becks believed that a person develops a negative view about themselves due to 3 types of negative thinking which happen automatically, they are: negative view of the world, negative view of the future and negative view of oneself.

Question 39

Give me an evaluation of Beck’s negative triad ?

Answer 39

Strength: supporting research
study by Joseph Cohen et al in 2019 . They tracked the development of 473 teenagers, regularly measuring cognitive vulnerability. It was found that showing cognitive vulnerability predicted later depression.

Strength: applications in treatment for depression
understanding cognitive vulnerability can be applied in cognitive behaviour therapy. These therapies work by altering the cognitions that make people vulnerable to depression, therefore making them more resilient to negative life events

Question 40

What is cognitive behaviour therapy ?

Answer 40

this is where the client and the therapist work together to find the clients problems. Then they both create goals and put together a plan to achieve them. And most importantly these thoughts must be challenged. This could be in the form of homework, such as to record every time someone was nice to them.

Question 41

What is Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy ?

Answer 41

REBT is an extension of the ABC model. The main technique of REBT is to identify and challenge irrational thoughts. This can be achieved through vigorous arguments. The effect of this is to change the irrational belief and so break the line between negative life events and depression.

Question 42

What is behavioural activation ?

Answer 42

the aim of this is to work with depressed individuals to gradually decrease their avoidance and isolation and increase their engagement in activities that have been to show to improve mood.

Question 43

Give me an evaluation of CBT ?

Answer 43

Strength: supporting evidence for effectiveness in treating depression
For example John March et al. (2007) compared CBT to antidepressant drugs and also in combination when treating 327 depressed teenagers. After 36 weeks 81% of the CBT group, 81% of the antidepressant group and 86% of both the CBT/antidepressant group were significantly improved.

Weakness: lack of effectiveness for clients with learning disabilities
Peter Sturmey (2005) suggested that talking therapies such as CBT is not suitable for people with learning difficulties due to the hard cognitive work involved in CBT. This suggests that CBT is only effective for a specific range of people with depression

Weakness: high relapse rates
there are concerns with how long the benefits last when it comes to CBT. For example, Shehzad Ali (2017) assessed depression in 439 clients every month for 12 months following a course of CBT. 42% of the clients relapsed into depression within 6 months of ending treatment and 53% relapsed within a year. This means that CBT may be repeated periodically.

Question 44

What is OCD ?

Answer 44

this is where a person experiences reoccurring intrusive thoughts and feels like they must carry out certain actions to reduce anxiety.

Question 45

What are the behavioural characteristics of OCD ?

Answer 45

• Repetition: compelled to repeat a behaviour
• Anxiety Reduction: compulsive behaviours are performed in an attempt to manage anxiety

*Avoidance: people with OCD will tend to manage their OCD by avoiding situations that trigger OCD

Question 46

What are emotional characteristics of OCD ?

Answer 46

• High anxiety and distress
• Depression
• Guilt and disgust

Question 47

Does OCD run in families ?

Answer 47

Yes. Lewis (1936) observed OCD students and found that 37% of them had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD

Question 48

What is a candidate gene ?

Answer 48

this is a gene that creates vulnerability to OCD

Question 49

What does in mean by the term polygenic in terms of OCD ?

Answer 49

this means that OCD is not caused by one single gene, however is caused by a combination of genes that together increase the vulnerability

Question 50

What does the term aetiologically heterogeneous mean ?

Answer 50

this means that the origin of OCD can differ between different people.

Question 51

What neurotransmitter does OCD affect ?

Answer 51

OCD affects serotonin levels, this is bad as then a person may experience low moods

Question 52

Does OCD affect your decision making ?

Answer 52

yes and it affects your frontal lobe, which is responsible for logical thinking and making decisions

Question 53

Give me an evaluation for genetic explanations of OCD.

Answer 53

Strength: supporting research that people are vulnerable to OCD as a result of their genetic makeup
for example Gerald Nestadt et al. (2010) reviewed twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins shared OCD as oppose to 31% of non-identical twins.
Weakness: environmental factors contribute to OCD not just genetics
for example Kiara Cromer et al. (2007) found that overall half the OCD clients in their sample had experienced a traumatic event in their past.

Question 54

Give me an evaluation for neural explanation of OCD.

Answer 54

Strength: supporting research
antidepressants that work purely on serotonin are effective in reducing OCD symptoms, this suggests that serotonin may be involved in OCD
Weakness: the serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to just OCD
some people with OCD suffer from depression, this is known as co-morbidity . This depression causes disruption in serotonin levels . Therefore this could mean that when serotonin levels are low it could also mean that an individual is depressed.

Question 55

What sort of antidepressant helps tackle the symptoms of OCD ?

Answer 55

SSRI’s

Question 56

How do SSRI’s work ?

Answer 56

it prevents the serotonin to be absorbed and be broken down by the presynaptic neuron. This increases serotonin levels as it stimulates the postsynaptic neuron. This then compensates for whatever is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD

Question 57

Why are SSRI’s combined with CBT ?

Answer 57

this is because it reduces a persons emotional symptoms, therefore making it easier for people with OCD to engage more effectively with the CBT