Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

What is introspection ?

Answer 1

it involves breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.

Question 1

Describe how introspection is conducted ?

Answer 1

people were given stimuli in controlled conditions and asked to explain their own mental processes. Introspection is standardised to make it consistent and replicable

Question 2

What was the Hunter and Csikszentmihalyi experiment ?

Answer 2

they studied happiness in teenagers using introspection. Participants were surprised by a bell which sounded at different times in the day. They were asked to record the intensity and quality of their inner mental processes. Their findings suggested that teenagers were generally unhappy, however were more positive and upbeat when focused on task.

Question 3

Give me an evaluation of Wundt’s work ?

Answer 3

Strength: Wundt’s work was well controlled. All introspections were recorded in a lab, ensuring that extraneous variables were not a factor. In addition procedures and instructions were standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way.

Weakness: Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. However such data is subjective, as many can just hide some of their thoughts. Therefore it would be difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour. This shows how some of Wundt’s work is unreliable.

Question 4

What is the behaviourist approach ?

Answer 4

this is studying behaviour which is visible. They believe that behaviour should be objective and measurable, and that research should identify cause and effect. They also encouraged lab experiments as it controlled extraneous variables.

Question 4

What does the term classical conditioning mean ?

Answer 4

this is learning through association

Question 5

What does the term operant conditioning mean ?

Answer 5

this is where behaviour is shaped by environment and its consequences.

Question 6

What was the Pavlov Study ?

Answer 6

The aim of the study was to see how learning can be achieved through association, through showing how dogs can be conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bell when food is presented to the them at the same time.
Essentially the method was that every time it was time for the dog to eat. Pavlov would ring a bell. Gradually overtime Pavlov’s dog associated the sound of the bell with the food and would salivate every time he heard the sound of the bell, even if food was not presented.

Question 7

What was the Skinner study (1948) ?

Answer 7

The aim of the study was to investigate whether behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. The procedure of the experiment was that it was conducted in rates which were placed in a designed cage known as the Skinner Box. Essentially every time the rat activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet. The study showed that the rat would continue to hit the lever, in order for more food.

Question 8

What is positive reinforcement ?

Answer 8

this is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed. This increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated..

Question 9

What is negative reinforcement ?

Answer 9

this is when an animal/human avoids something unpleasant. This increases likelihood of behaviour being repeated.

Question 10

What does the term punishment mean ?

Answer 10

an unpleasant consequence of a behaviour. This decreases the chance of behaviour being repeated again.

Question 11

Give me an evaluation for the behaviourist approach ?

Answer 11

Strength: based on well-controlled research
Behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking it down into basic stimuli. This then therefore removes extraneous variables and allows for a cause and effect relationship to be established. This shows how behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.

Strength: the behaviourist approach principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems.
For example operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems which have been used successfully in institutions such as prisons. The way it works is that appropriate behaviour is rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.

Limitation: a problem with the behaviourist approach is that it uses animals in research.
Skinner used rats which were chronically underfed and held in cramped conditions. Animal research cant generalise to humans. Therefore the use of animals has major ethical concerns and lack of usefulness.

Question 12

What is the cognitive approach ?

Answer 12

this states how in order to understand behaviour we must study our internal mental processes.

Question 13

What is our internal mental processes ?

Answer 13

these are private processes of the mind such as perception, attention and memory. These processes mediate between stimuli and our mediate to the stimuli.

Question 14

What is a schema ?

Answer 14

its a package of beliefs or expectations. It is a cognitive framework that helps us to organise and interpret information in the mind.

Question 15

When might we need to adapt the schema ?

Answer 15

depending on the environment or situation

Question 16

How can schema be useful ?

Answer 16

• helps us to make shortcuts when interpreting large amounts of information
• helps us to fill in gaps when we do not have complete information

Question 17

What are the two models that helps psychologists understand our internal mental processes ?

Answer 17

theoretical and computer models. Theoretical models are more abstract and are simplified representations based on evidence so far. Computer models use computer analogies and terms for example input, storage and output to make computer programs.

Question 18

What is cognitive neuroscience ?

Answer 18

the scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes

Question 19

What is machine reductionism ?

Answer 19

this is the belief that human functions are the result of the units of activity in the information processing systems.

Question 20

Give me an evaluation of the cognitive approach ?

Answer 20

Weakness:
the use of computer models to explain thought processes. This is referred to as machine reductionism, this is because it reduces complex human behaviour to computer operations. This is a problem because human information processing is influenced by emotions and motivation. Therefore, although there are many similarities between the human mind and the computer, using computer models provides limited explanation of processing and has limited validity.
Strength:
its the use of objective and controlled scientific methods. Cognitive psychology has highly controlled methods of study so scientists can infer what cognitive processes are taking place. Therefore this increases the validity of the cognitive approach and its ability to explain human behaviour.
Strength:
good practical application. Cognitive psychology has made an important contribution in the field of AI and the development of robots.

Question 21

What is the social learning theory ?

Answer 21

this is a theory that states that we live through observation and imitation of others. These people are known as role models.

Question 22

What does the term indirect reinforcement mean ?

Answer 22

this is where the reinforcement of behaviour is indirect and it comes from seeing someone else receive reinforcement.

Question 23

What was the Bandura Study (1973) ?

Answer 23

The aim of the study was to see if children would copy aggressive behaviour demonstrated by an adult toward an inflatable toy known as a Bobo doll. Children who participated where aged between 3-6 and were divided into two groups. The method of the study was that the first group would observe an adult showing physical and verbal aggression toward the doll in a room filled with toys. The second group watched an adult interact non-aggressively with different toys. The findings of the study showed that children exposed to an aggressive model were more likely to be aggressive themselves.

Question 23

What are the 4 mediational processes ?

Answer 23

• Attention
• Retention
• Motor Reproduction
• Motivation

Question 24

Give me an evaluation of social learning theory ?

Answer 24

Weakness: most evidence gathered was through lab studies.
This could be seen as a weakness due to high levels of demand characteristics. This could further be supported by the Bobo doll research, as the main purpose of bobo doll was to strike it, therefore some can argue that the children were behaving in a way in which they thought was acceptable.

Strength: applicable
SLT theory has the ability to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles such as imitation and modelling can help understand how children learn from others around them. This could further explain how cultural/social norms are transmitted through certain societies.

Strength: takes into account cognitive factors in learning

Question 25

What are concordance rates ?

Answer 25

are used to compare the likelihood of someone developing an illness. Measures how often two individuals who are closely related share the same characteristics.

Question 25

What is a persons genotype ?

Answer 25

this is a persons genetic makeup

Question 26

What is a persons phenotype ?

Answer 26

this is the way someone’s genes are expressed through physical, biological and psychological characteristics

Question 27

What is the theory of natural selection ?

Answer 27

the main principle of this theory is that any characteristic that enhances an individuals survival or reproduction will continue in future generations. This is because that animal with the desirable characteristic survives for longer, reproduces and passes on these traits.

Question 28

Give me an evaluation of the Biological approach ?

Answer 28

Strength: real world application
increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain has allowed for the development of psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders. For example the use of antidepressant drugs increases the levels of serotonin, which have been linked to decrease the chance of depressive symptoms.
Strength: uses scientific methods of investigation
in order to investigate genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach uses technology such as fMRIs.This then allows to accurately measure psychological and neural processes.

Question 29

What is the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 29

this was a theory made up by Sigmund Freud and he heavily believed that the mind is made up of the unconscious, which has an influence on our behaviour and personality.

Question 30

What was Freud’s Tripartite Structure of personality ?

Answer 30

There are 3 parts:
* The ID
* The Ego
* The Super-ego

Question 31

What is the ID part of Freud’s tripartite structure of personality ?

Answer 31

these are your desires. This works on the ‘ pleasure principle’, can be seen from when you are born

Question 32

What is the Ego part of Freud’s tripartite structure of personality ?

Answer 32

this is the reality. This works on the ‘reality principle’. It regulates between the demands of the ID and the super-ego. This can be seen from the age of 2.

Question 33

What is the Super Ego part of Freud’s tripartite structure of personality ?

Answer 33

this is your morality. It works on your ‘morality principle’. This is the person’s ability to distinguish between right and wrong. This can be seen from the age of 5.

Question 34

What are defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 34

these are unconscious strategies used by the ego to manage the conflict between the super-ego and the Id. They help to reduce a persons anxiety?

Question 35

What are the different mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 35

• Repression
• Denial
• Displacement
• Sublimation
• Regression

Question 36

What does repression do as a mechanism in the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 36

it forces a distressing memory out of the conscious mind

Question 37

What does denial do as a mechanism in the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 37

refusing to acknowledge some aspects of reality

Question 38

What does displacement do as a mechanism in the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 38

if a person cannot direct their thoughts and feelings towards the person they hold responsible, they make take it out on someone else or something else.

Question 39

What does sublimation do as a mechanism in the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 39

this channelling aggression into a socially acceptable way

Question 40

What does regression do as a mechanism in the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 40

go back to child like state, when a person cant cope with pressure

Question 41

What is the psychosexual stages of development ?

Answer 41

this was developed by Freud and he believed that children developed their sexual energy through 5 stages/

Question 42

What are the different stages in the psychosexual stages of development ?

Answer 42

• Oral stage
• Anal stage
• Phallic stage
• Latency stage
• Genital stage

Question 43

What is the oral stage in the psychosexual stages of development ?

Answer 43

this begins from when you are born to the age of 1. And it shows how the mouth is first sex organ for providing pressure to the infants

Question 44

What is the anal stage in the psychosexual stages of development ?

Answer 44

this starts from the age of 2-3. And this shows how the urethra or the anus is the sex organ that brings pleasure to the infant.

Question 45

What is the phallic stage in the psychosexual stages of development ?

Answer 45

this starts from the age of 3-6. And this shows how the genital area is a source of pleasure for the infant.

Question 46

What is the latency stage in the psychosexual stages of development ?

Answer 46

this starts from the age of 6-7. And this is where sex drives in this period are latent.

Question 47

What is the genital stage in the psychosexual stages of development ?

Answer 47

this is the transition from puberty to adult life. A person shows interest in the opposite sex and sexual intercourse is the goal.

Question 48

Give me an evaluation of the psychodynamic approach ?

Answer 48

Strength: introduced the idea of psychotherapy.
Freud discovered psychoanalysis, this is where they treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically. And its main role is to bring a clients repressed emotions into their conscious mind so they can be dealt with. This gave the foundation for modern day talking therapies such as counselling.

Strength: ability to explain human behaviour
its been used to explain personality development and helps draw attention to the connections in our experiences in childhood, such as our relationships with our parents, and our later development

Weakness: the theory is untestable
as many of Freuds concepts such as the ID occur at a unconscious level, making them difficult to test. Furthermore his ideas were based on subjective study of a single individual. Little Hans. Therefore making it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour.

Question 49

What is humanistic psychology ?

Answer 49

This is the idea that human beings are essentially self determining and have a free will.

Question 50

What was Maslow’s hierachy of needs ?

Answer 50

these are a group of needs that motivate our behaviour, which are psychological, safety, love, esteem. And to achieve our primary goal of self actualisation you have to meet those 4 demands. And you cannot move up until the previous stage has been fulfilled.

Question 51

What did Carl Rogers talk about in humanistic psychology?

Answer 51

He believed that in order to achieve self actualisation, persons concept of themselves must be congruent with their ideal self. If there is too big of a gap between a persons current self and ideal self. A person will experience a state of incongruence and self actualisation will not be possible.

Question 52

What is client-centred therapy ?

Answer 52

This was a therapy developed by Carl Rogers in order to bridge the gap between a persons current self and ideal self. He believed that the reason some people feel worthlessness and low self-esteem is due to their childhood experiences and a lack of unconditional positive self regard. This is where a parent will set boundaries on a love for their child.

Question 53

Give me an evaluation of the humanistic approach ?

Answer 53

Strength: rejects reductionism
humanistic approach promotes holism, where a persons subjective experiences can be understood by considering the whole person. This is different to for example the biological approach, which breaks down behaviour into basic psychological processes.

Strength: its optimistic
it promotes a positive image of a person and how a person is free to work to achieve their potential. This could be said differently about the psychodynamic approach for example as Freud believed that people are who they are due to their past.

Limitation: culturally-biased
many of the ideas that define the humanistic approach such as self actualisation, personal growth, would be much more associated with countries that are more individualist. Countries who are more collectivist emphasise the need of groups and interdependence. Therefore the ideas of humanistic psychology are not entirely universal.