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AQA A Level Psychology > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 definitions of Abnormality?

A

Statistical infrequency

Deviation from social norms

Failure to function adequately

Deviation from ideal mental health

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2
Q

What is meant by Psychopathology?

A

the scientific study of mental disorders ​

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3
Q

Statistical Infrequency

A

when an individual has a less common characteristic.

This is a mathematical method for defining abnormality. This definition works on the idea that abnormality should be based on infrequency; if it occurs rarely then it is abnormal.​

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4
Q

What is an example of statistical infrequency?

A

IQ
Average IQ is 100: 68% of people have this score

Individuals that score below 70 are very unusual ‘abnormal’ and are liable to receive a diagnosis of psychological disorder- Intellectual disability disorder (IDD)​

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5
Q

Deviation from social norms

A

behaviour that is different from the accepted standards of behaviour in a community or society , making it abnormal

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6
Q

What is an example of deviation from social norms?

A

homosexuality was considered abnormal in our culture in the past and continues to be viewed as abnormal even illegal in some cultures ​

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7
Q

How do we consider whether a behaviour has violated a social norm? ​

A
  • culture
  • context and situation
  • historical context
  • age and gender
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8
Q

What is necessary to consider when talking about deviation from social norms?

A

The degree to which a norm is violated,​

The importance of that norm,​

The value attached by the social group to different sorts of violations, e.g., is the violation rude, eccentric, abnormal, or criminal?​

​

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9
Q

Failure to function adequately

A

occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary demands of day to day living.​

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10
Q

What are examples of failure to function adequately?

A

They may be unable to perform the behaviours necessary for day-to-day living, e.g., self-care, holding down a job, interacting meaningfully with others, making themselves understood, etc.​

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11
Q

Rosenhan & Seligman (1989) criteria for FTFA

A
  • Suffering
  • Maladaptiveness
  • Unpredictability and loss of control
  • Irrationality /incomprehensibility
  • Causing observer discomfort
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12
Q

Deviation from ideal mental health

A

Occurs when someone does not meet a set of criteria for good mental health.​

A different way to look at abnormality is to ignore who is abnormal but rather taking a look at what we consider normal.​

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13
Q

What is Jahoda’s (1958) criteria?

A
  • Positive attitude towards the self
  • Self actualisation
  • Personal autonomy
  • Resistance to stress
  • Environmental mastery
  • Accurate perception of reality
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14
Q

What is a phobia?

A

An anxiety disorder, and is an extreme, irrational reaction to an object or a situation.

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15
Q

What are the categories of phobias?

A
  • specific phobias
  • social anxiety (social phobia)
  • agoraphobia (fear of outside spaces without the ability to escape)
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16
Q

What are the behavioural characteristics of a phobia?

A
  • Panic (crying, screaming running away etc.)
  • Avoidance (conscious effort to get away from fear)
  • Endurance (opposite to avoidance, person may stay in the room with phobia to keep an eye on it)
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17
Q

What are the emotional characteristics of phobias

A
  • Anxiety ( unpleasant state of high arousal)
  • Fear
  • Emotional response is irrational
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18
Q

What are the cognitive characteristics of phobias

A
  • Selective attention (difficult to look away from phobic stimuli)
  • Irrational beliefs (thoughts about phobia that have no basis in reality)
  • Cognitive distortions ( inaccurate/ unrealistic perception)
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19
Q

What do you think can cause phobias?

A
  • faulty cognitions
  • chemical imbalance in the brain
  • learned behaviour (e.g. negative reinforcement)
  • associations between stimuli ( classical conditioning)
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20
Q

Behaviourist explanation of phobias

A

The behaviourist explanation suggest that phobias and other behaviours are learnt through classical and operant conditioning.

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21
Q

Mowrer (1960)

A

Proposed the two-process model based on the behavioural approach to phobias

  1. Phobias are acquired through classical conditioning
  2. Phobias are then maintained through operant conditioning
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22
Q

Research demonstrating acquisition of phobia

A

Watson and Rayner (1920)’s little abert study

UCS- the noise
UCR- fear
NS- rat paired with UCS - noise
REPEATED
CS- rat
CR- fear of rat

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23
Q

Maintaining phobia happening through operant condition

A

Negative Reinforcement occurs when an individual avoids a situation that is unpleasant, therefore increasing the behaviour

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24
Q

Seligman 1971

A

Humans have a biological preparedness to develop certain phobias rather than others because they were adaptive (i.e. helpful) in our evolutionary past

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25
Q

Systematic Desensitisation

A

treatment designed to gradually expose an individual to a phobic stimuli to reduce anxiety- using the principles of classical conditioning

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26
Q

Joseph Wolpe (1958)

A

developed the technique of SD, gradually exposing individuals to stimuli

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27
Q

3 Processes involved in SD

A

Relaxation
Anxiety Hierarchy
Exposure

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28
Q

Menzies and Clarke (1993) on SD

A

in vivo (real life) techniques on SD are more successful than in vitro

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29
Q

Relaxation

A

An individual is taught relaxation techniques e.g. breathing techniques, muscle relaxation strategies or mental imagery techniques

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30
Q

Anxiety Hierarchy

A

After learning, you develop a fear hierarchy for the phobia and rank it from levels 1-10

31
Q

Exposure

A

Exposing patient to phobic stimuli

32
Q

Flooding

A

Exposing people with a phobia to their phobic stimuli without gradual build up

33
Q

How does flooding work?

A

Classical conditioning called extinction

Not allowing the patient to avoid their phobia- the aim is to show the patient that their phobia is harmless (stopping phobic responses quickly)

34
Q

Counter conditioning

A

When a phobic stimuli is paired with relaxation instead of anxiety, allowing the individual to learn a new response

35
Q

Reciprocal inhibition

A

According to SD, two emotional states cannot exist the same time

36
Q

What happens if the therapist allows the client out too early?

A

They run the risk of reinforcing the phobia as the client would have successfully managed to avoid the phobic stimuli

37
Q

Jongh et al (2006)

A

found that 73% of people fear of dental treatment had a traumatic experience

38
Q

DiNardo (1990)

A

individuals can have no recollection of previous traumatic experience

39
Q

Diathesis stress model

A

This model proposes that people develop psychological disorders when they possess both an inherited or constitutional predispositions (diathesis) and are exposed to stressful events.

40
Q

What is OCD?

A

A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour. Obsessions are cognitive whereas compulsions are behavioural. ​

41
Q

What are obsessions?

A

Cognitive; is something you think about

42
Q

What are compulsions?

A

Behavioural; something you feel the need to do

43
Q

What percentage of OCD sufferers experience both obsessions and compulsions?

A

70%

20% experience just obsessions
10% experience just compulsions

44
Q

Cognitive characteristics of OCD​

A
  • Obsessive Thoughts
  • Cognitive Coping Strategies
  • Insight into excessive anxiety
45
Q

Emotional characteristics of OCD

A
  • Anxiety and distress
  • Accompanying depression
  • Guilt and Disgust
46
Q

Behavioural characteristics of OCD

A
  • Repetitive Compulsions
  • Compulsions reducing anxiety e.g. excessive hand washing
  • Avoidance
47
Q

Genetic explanation of OCD

A

particular genes are implicated in OCD. It is known as a polygenic which means there are multiple genes that might be involved with the development of OCD. ​

Researchers have identified genes, which create this vulnerability for OCD, called candidate genes. S

48
Q

Two genes linked to OCD

A

COMT and SERT gene

49
Q

What is the COMT gene?

A

associated with the production and regulation of the neurotransmitter dopamine. ​

One variation of the COMT gene results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients with OCD.
​

50
Q

What is the SERT gene?

A

Linked to the neurotransmitter serotonin and affects the transport of the serotonin causing lower levels of serotonin which is also associated with OCD

51
Q

Lewis (1936) Genetic Explanation of OCD

A

observed OCD in patients and found 37% have parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD.
This suggested that OCD can run in families.

52
Q

Billet et al (1998)

A

MZ twins have a higher concordance rate for OCD than DZ twins. 68%MZ and DZ 31%.​

53
Q

What does Lewis’ 1936 study imply?

A

implies a genetic vulnerability/ predisposition rather than a guarantee.

According to the diathesis- stress model certain genes leave some people more likely to develop mental disorder but is not certain.

Instead, it is suggested that certain environments are most likely to trigger the development of the condition. ​

54
Q

Research to support polygenetics

A

Taylor (2013) analysed findings of previous studies and found evidence of up to 230 different genes that may be involved with OCD development.

These include the action of dopamine as well as serotonin both neurotransmitters believed to have a role in regulating mood.

55
Q

What do biological psychologist rely on for their studies on genetics?​

A

Twin Studies/ Family Research

56
Q

Neural explanations for OCD​

A

abnormal levels of neurotransmitters, in particular serotonin and dopamine, are implicated in OCD.​

Also suggest that particular regions of the brain, in particular the basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex, are implicated in OCD.​

57
Q

Role of serotonin in OCD

A

Serotonin regulates mood and lower levels of serotonin are associated with mood disorders, such as depression. ​

58
Q

Role of dopamine in OCD

A

higher levels of dopamine being associated with some of the symptoms of OCD, in particular the compulsive behaviours.​

59
Q

Cromer et al (1998)

A

reports serotonin and dopamine are linked to these regions of the brain (basal ganglia of OFC). ​

60
Q

Basal Ganglia Role

A

Distributes serotonin and controls emotional and cognitive functions

61
Q

Orbitofrontal Cortex Role

A

a region which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions.

Responsible for anxiety ​

62
Q

Caudate nucleus

A

acts as a filter suppresses messages from OFC​

63
Q

Thalamus

A

responsible for safety behaviour​

64
Q

What occurs in a person without OCD in the brain?

A

OFC sends message- eg touching sticky table ​

Caudate nucleus- will supress message from OFC​

Thalamus- only responds to major worry

65
Q

What occurs in a person with OCD in the brain?

A

OCF sends message- touching sticky table ​

Caudate nucleus- damaged and unable to supress or filter​

Thalamus- responds to every message ​

This continues to happen over and over again

66
Q

What do biological treatments for OCD aim to restore?

A

biological imbalances, such as too little serotonin

67
Q

What is an SSRI

A

selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors) are a type of anti-depressant drug, which include drugs like Prozac.​

68
Q

How are neurotransmitters different from impulses?

A

The impulses send signals from the body to the brain; (electrical)​

Neurotransmitters send signals from the brain to the body. (chemical)​

69
Q

How do SSRI’s work?

A

SSRIs work by blocking (“inhibiting”) reuptake, meaning more serotonin is available to pass further messages between nearby nerve cells, which increases serotonin levels in the brain

70
Q

Combining SSRI’s with other treatments

A

Drugs are normally used in combination with other therapies such as CBT (cognitive behavioural therapy) to treat OCD. ​

The drugs reduce the emotional symptoms such as anxiety and depression

71
Q

Alternatives to SSRI’s

A

Tricyclics- older type of anti-depressant which acts on various systems including the serotonin system where it has the same effect as SSRI ​

SNRI’s (serotonin -noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors)

72
Q

Disadvantage of Tricyclics

A

people have extreme side effects to this ​

73
Q

Anti-Anxiety Drugs

A

Benzodiazepines (BZs) such as Valium work by enhancing the action of the neurotransmitter GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid).
GABA tells neurons in the brain to ‘slow down’

74
Q
A

AQA A Level Psychology (11 decks)

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