psychopathology

Question 1

what is deviation from social norms?

Answer 1

breaking social norms within a given situation
ie antisocial personality disorder

Question 2

what is failure to function adequately?

Answer 2

not able to cope with demands of daily life (job, home life etc)
causes personal distress

Question 3

what is statistical infrequency?

Answer 3

statistically uncommon behaviour
ie intellectual disability disorder

Question 4

what is deviation from ideal mental health?

Answer 4

focuses on how to be mentally healthy
ie positive self-esteem, resistant to stress, self actualisation, reach your potential

Question 5

evalution of statistical infrequency

Answer 5

S - usefulness - used in clinical practice ie Beck’s depression inventory
L - infrequent characteristics can also be positive

Question 6

evaluation of deviation from social norms

Answer 6

S - real world application - used in clinical practice ie diagnosing antisocial personality disorder
L - cultural and situational relativism

Question 7

evaluation of failure to function adequately

Answer 7

S - represents a threshold for help
L - easy to label non-standard life choices as abnormal

Question 8

evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health

Answer 8

S - highly comprehensive
L - different elements are not equally applicable across cultures ie self-actualisation is a western ideaology

Question 9

what is a phobia?

Answer 9

persistent, irrational fear of a specific object, activity or situation that leads to a desire to avoid it
interferes with daily life

Question 10

what is a fear?

Answer 10

unpleasant emotion caused by the threat of danger, pain, or harm

Question 11

what are the types of phobias?

Answer 11

specific
social
agoraphobia

Question 12

behavioural characteristics of phobias

Answer 12

panic - crying, screaming, running away (children may freeze, cling or have a tantrum)
avoidance - tend to go to a lot of effort to avoid phobic stimulus (unless trying to face their fear)
endurance - sufferer remains in presence of phobic stimulus but continues to experience high anxiety levels

Question 13

emotional characteristics of a phobias

Answer 13

anxiety - phobias are classed as anxiety disorders, prevents person from relaxing & makes it hard to experience any positive emotions, long term
fear - immediate and extremely unpleasant response when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus, more intense but shorter period than anxiety
emotional response is unreasonable - anxiety/fear is much greater than is ‘normal’ and disproportionate to any threat posed

Question 14

cognitive characteristics of phobias

Answer 14

selective attention to the phobic stimulus - may be hard to look away from phobic stimulus
irrational beliefs - may hold irrational beliefs about phobic stimuli ie ‘all dogs will bite’
cognitive distortions - perceptions of the stimulus may be distorted ie seeing it as ugly/disgusting

Question 15

what is a key explanation of phobias?

Answer 15

the behavioural approach

Question 16

what is the two-process model?

Answer 16

Mowrer’s idea that phobias are (a) learned and (b) maintained

Question 17

how do classical & operant conditioning relate to phobias?

Answer 17

CC - acquisition of phobias, neutral stimulus associated with fear, then becomes phobic object
OC - maintains phobia, negative reinforcement because avoidance reduces anxiety

Question 18

case of little albert

Answer 18

Watson and Rayner
used a placid baby boy who showed no fear of a white lab rat at 9 months
at 11 months they carried out a study to endure fear
whenever they placed the rat in Albert’s lap, Watson banged two steel bars together behind his back - he did this 7 times
by the 3rd trial Albert showed fear whenever he saw the rat

Question 19

little albert CC equation

Answer 19

loud noise (UCS) = crying (UCR)
loud noise (UCS) + rat (NS) = crying (UCS)
rat (CS) = crying (CS)

Question 20

behavioural approach to explaining phobias evaluation

Answer 20

S - real world application - two-process model is used in exposure therapy (ie systematic desensitisation)
L - does not account for cognitive aspects of phobias - two-process model does not offer an explanation for phobic cognitions
S - provides evidence of a link between bad experiences and phobias
C - not all phobias appear after a bad experience

Question 21

behavioural characteristics of depression

Answer 21

activity levels - typically have reduced energy levels, can be so severe that they cannot get out of bed, tend to withdraw from social life, school, work, can have opposite effect (psychomotor agitation - struggle to relax & pace)
disruption to sleep & eating behaviour - may experience reduced sleep (insomnia), or increased need for sleep (hypersomnia), appetite may increase/decrease
aggression & self-harm - often irritable, may become verbally/physically aggressive, can also lead to self-harm and suicide attempts

Question 22

emotional characteristics of depression

Answer 22

lowered mood - often describe themselves as ‘empty’ or ‘worthless’, defining emotional trait
anger - frequently experience anger, sometimes extreme anger, may lead to aggressive or self-harming behaviours
lowered self-esteem. - emotional experience of how much we like ourselves, can be extreme ie self-hatred

Question 23

cognitive characteristics of depression

Answer 23

poor concentration - may find themselves unable to stick to tasks or make decisions, may interfere with daily life
attending to and dwelling on the negative - tend to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives
absolutist thinking - ‘black-and-white thinking’, tend to think situations are all good or all bad

Question 24

what is systematic desensitisation?

Answer 24

anxiety hierarchy: created by therapist and client and is a list of situations related to the phobia arranged from least to most frightening
relaxation: therapist teaches patient to relax - using breathing exercises; patient may learn mental imagery techniques; meditation; or drugs (ie valium)
exposure: patient is exposed to phobic stimulus while in relaxed state, takes place across several sessions so is gradual

Question 25

what is reciprocal inhibition?

Answer 25

two emotional states cannot exist at the same time

Question 26

what is flooding?

Answer 26

stops phobic responses quickly, doesn’t allow option of avoidance behaviour, patient learns that phobic stimulus is harmless, fear decreases process is called extinction: CS (dog) is encountered without UCS (being bitten), therefore CS no longer produces the CR (fear)

Question 27

systematic desensitisation evaluation

Answer 27

S - evidence base for its effectiveness S - can be used to help people with learning disabilities

Question 28

flooding evaluation

Answer 28

S - highly cost-effective L - highly unpleasant experience

Question 29

faulty information processing (beck’s negative triad)

Answer 29

do not process info in a positive light, focus on negative aspects, **cognitive bias - overgeneralisation** where they may make a sweeping conclusion based on a single incident, **catastrophising** - exaggerate a minor setback and believe that its a complete disaster

Question 30

self-schemas (beck’s negative triad)

Answer 30

self-schemas = packages of knowledge, mental framework based on experience, depressed people possess negative self-schemas - may come from negative experiences ie criticism: examples are **ineptness schema**, where sufferers expect to fail, **self-blame schema** makes them feel responsible for any misfortunes

Question 31

negative triad (beck’s negative triad)

Answer 31

according to beck, negative self-schemas & cognitive biases maintain the negative triad which is three types of negative thinking that occur automatically negative view of the self, the world, and the future

Question 32

ellis’ abc model

Answer 32

A - ‘activating event’ that could trigger depression ie failing a test B - ‘beliefs’ (interpretations) leading from this event - rational interpretation = hard test, didn’t revise enough - irrational interpretation = too stupid to pass C - ‘consequences’ - rational beliefs = healthy emotional outcomes - irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotional outcomes ie depression

Question 33

beck’s negative triad evaluation

Answer 33

S - existence of supporting research - ‘cognitive vulnerability’ refers to ways that may predispose someone to becoming depressed S - applications in screening & treatment for depression - assessing cognitive vulnerability allows psychologists to screen young people for depression S - partial explanation - depressed people show patterns of cognition C - some aspects are not particularly well explained by cognitive explanations (ie differing symptoms)

Question 34

ellis’ abc model evaluation

Answer 34

S - real world application - psychological treatment of depression - rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT) L - only explains reactive depression and not endogenous depression - many cases of depression do not have ‘activating events’ L - ethical issues - locates responsibility for depression purely with the depressed person - could be seen as blaming C - may make some people motivated

Question 35

CBT: overview

Answer 35

begins with assessment patient and therapist jointly identify goals for therapy and creating a plan to achieve them key task is to identify where there might be negative & irrational thoughts that will benefit from a challenge

Question 36

CBT: beck’s cognitive therapy

Answer 36

identifying the negative automatic thoughts in negative triad thoughts are then challenged helps clients to test the reality of their negative beliefs may be set homework - ie record when they enjoyed something (client as scientist) therapist can refer back to homework in future if they claim not to enjoy anything

Question 37

CBT: Ellis’ rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)

Answer 37

ABC model becomes ABCD (dispute) E (effect) REBT is based around identifying and disputing irrational thoughts would involve a rigorous argument with the aim of changing irrational beliefs which then breaks the link between negative life events and depression

Question 38

types of disputing

Answer 38

logical disputing - does it make sense to think this way? does the negative thought logically follow from the facts? empirical disputing - is there any actual evidence to support the negative belief?

Question 39

evaluation of CBT: depression

Answer 39

S - large body of evidence - CBT was just as effective when used on its own and more so when used alongside antidepressants L - lack of effectiveness for severe cases & for clients with learning disabilities - may not be able to motivate themselves C - CBT can be effective if done properly L - relapse rates - 42% relapsed into depression within six months of ending treatment & 53% relapsed within a year

Question 40

genetic explanations of OCD

Answer 40

**polygenic** - OCD is caused by several genes **candidate genes** - genes create a vulnerability for OCD **neurotransmitters** - serotonin and dopamine **aetiologically heterogenous** - one group of genes may cause OCD in one person and a different group of genes may cause OCD in another person

Question 41

genetic explanations of OCD evaluation

Answer 41

S - research support - variety of sources strongly suggest that some people are genetically vulnerable to OCD - twin studies L - environmental risk factors - strong evidence for idea that genetics make people vulnerable to OCD - study showed over half of OCD clients in sample had had a traumatic experience

Question 42

neural explanations of OCD (role of serotonin)

Answer 42

neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another serotonin is believed to help regulate mood low levels of serotonin = transmission of mood-relevant information does not take place and so they may experience low mood some cases of OCD may be explained by a reduction in the functioning of the serotonin system

Question 43

neural explanations of OCD (decision-making systems)

Answer 43

some cases (esp hoarding disorder) seem to be linked to impaired decision making abnormal functioning of frontal lobes frontal lobes -> responsible for logical thinking & making decisions some evidence to suggest left parahippocampal gyrus functions abnormally in OCD

Question 44

neural explanation evaluation

Answer 44

S - research support - antidepressants that work purely on serotonin are effective in reducing OCD symptoms L - no unique neural system - the serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to OCD

Question 45

behavioural characteristics of OCD

Answer 45

**compulsions are repetitive** - sufferers often feel compelled to repeat behaviours ie hand washing **compulsions reduce anxiety** - performed to manage the anxiety created by the obsessions ie compulsive hand washing is performed as a response to an obsessive fear of germs **avoidance** - attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it

Question 46

emotional characteristics of OCD

Answer 46

**anxiety and distress** - obsessive thoughts are unpleasant and frightening, anxiety can be overwhelming **accompanying depression** - low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities **guilt and disgust** - can feel irrational guilt over minor moral issues or disgust directed at the self or external objects such as dirt etc.

Question 47

cognitive characteristics of OCD

Answer 47

**obsessions** - obsessive thoughts that recur over and over again **cognitive strategies** can be used to deal with obsessions ie a religious person tormented by guilt may pray or meditate **insight into excessive anxiety** - are aware that their obsessions/compulsions are not rational - necessary for diagnosis of OCD **hypervigilant** - maintain constant alertness and keep attention focused on potential hazards

Question 48

what is the ocd cycle?

Answer 48

obsessive thought -> anxiety -> compulsive behaviour -> temp relief cycle repeats over and over

Question 49

SSRIs

Answer 49

SSRIS prevent the re-absorption and breakdown of serotonin which increases its levels in the synapse and will continue to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron

Question 50

combining SSRIs with other treatment

Answer 50

often used alongside CBT to treat OCD drugs reduce a person’s emotional symptoms so OCD can engage more effectively with the CBT

Question 51

alternatives to SSRIs

Answer 51

tricyclics: older type of antidepressant ie clomipramine, acts on various systems including the serotonin system (has same effect as SSRIs), more severe side effects SNRIs: different class of antidepressants, increase levels of serotonin and noradrenaline

Question 52

evaluation of drug therapy

Answer 52

S - evidence for effectiveness - SSRIs reduce symptom severity C - may not be most effective treatments available S - cost-effective and non-disruptive L - serious side effects ie indigestion, blurred vision, weight gain