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psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

what is deviation from social norms?

A

breaking social norms within a given situation
ie antisocial personality disorder

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2
Q

what is failure to function adequately?

A

not able to cope with demands of daily life (job, home life etc)
causes personal distress

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3
Q

what is statistical infrequency?

A

statistically uncommon behaviour
ie intellectual disability disorder

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4
Q

what is deviation from ideal mental health?

A

focuses on how to be mentally healthy
ie positive self-esteem, resistant to stress, self actualisation, reach your potential

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5
Q

evalution of statistical infrequency

A

S - usefulness - used in clinical practice ie Beck’s depression inventory
L - infrequent characteristics can also be positive

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6
Q

evaluation of deviation from social norms

A

S - real world application - used in clinical practice ie diagnosing antisocial personality disorder
L - cultural and situational relativism

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7
Q

evaluation of failure to function adequately

A

S - represents a threshold for help
L - easy to label non-standard life choices as abnormal

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8
Q

evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health

A

S - highly comprehensive
L - different elements are not equally applicable across cultures ie self-actualisation is a western ideaology

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9
Q

what is a phobia?

A

persistent, irrational fear of a specific object, activity or situation that leads to a desire to avoid it
interferes with daily life

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10
Q

what is a fear?

A

unpleasant emotion caused by the threat of danger, pain, or harm

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11
Q

what are the types of phobias?

A

specific
social
agoraphobia

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12
Q

behavioural characteristics of phobias

A

panic - crying, screaming, running away (children may freeze, cling or have a tantrum)
avoidance - tend to go to a lot of effort to avoid phobic stimulus (unless trying to face their fear)
endurance - sufferer remains in presence of phobic stimulus but continues to experience high anxiety levels

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13
Q

emotional characteristics of a phobias

A

anxiety - phobias are classed as anxiety disorders, prevents person from relaxing & makes it hard to experience any positive emotions, long term
fear - immediate and extremely unpleasant response when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus, more intense but shorter period than anxiety
emotional response is unreasonable - anxiety/fear is much greater than is ‘normal’ and disproportionate to any threat posed

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14
Q

cognitive characteristics of phobias

A

selective attention to the phobic stimulus - may be hard to look away from phobic stimulus
irrational beliefs - may hold irrational beliefs about phobic stimuli ie ‘all dogs will bite’
cognitive distortions - perceptions of the stimulus may be distorted ie seeing it as ugly/disgusting

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15
Q

what is a key explanation of phobias?

A

the behavioural approach

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16
Q

what is the two-process model?

A

Mowrer’s idea that phobias are (a) learned and (b) maintained

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17
Q

how do classical & operant conditioning relate to phobias?

A

CC - acquisition of phobias, neutral stimulus associated with fear, then becomes phobic object
OC - maintains phobia, negative reinforcement because avoidance reduces anxiety

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18
Q

case of little albert

A

Watson and Rayner
used a placid baby boy who showed no fear of a white lab rat at 9 months
at 11 months they carried out a study to endure fear
whenever they placed the rat in Albert’s lap, Watson banged two steel bars together behind his back - he did this 7 times
by the 3rd trial Albert showed fear whenever he saw the rat

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19
Q

little albert CC equation

A

loud noise (UCS) = crying (UCR)
loud noise (UCS) + rat (NS) = crying (UCS)
rat (CS) = crying (CS)

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20
Q

behavioural approach to explaining phobias evaluation

A

S - real world application - two-process model is used in exposure therapy (ie systematic desensitisation)
L - does not account for cognitive aspects of phobias - two-process model does not offer an explanation for phobic cognitions
S - provides evidence of a link between bad experiences and phobias
C - not all phobias appear after a bad experience

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21
Q

behavioural characteristics of depression

A

activity levels - typically have reduced energy levels, can be so severe that they cannot get out of bed, tend to withdraw from social life, school, work, can have opposite effect (psychomotor agitation - struggle to relax & pace)
disruption to sleep & eating behaviour - may experience reduced sleep (insomnia), or increased need for sleep (hypersomnia), appetite may increase/decrease
aggression & self-harm - often irritable, may become verbally/physically aggressive, can also lead to self-harm and suicide attempts

22
Q

emotional characteristics of depression

A

lowered mood - often describe themselves as ‘empty’ or ‘worthless’, defining emotional trait
anger - frequently experience anger, sometimes extreme anger, may lead to aggressive or self-harming behaviours
lowered self-esteem. - emotional experience of how much we like ourselves, can be extreme ie self-hatred

23
Q

cognitive characteristics of depression

A

poor concentration - may find themselves unable to stick to tasks or make decisions, may interfere with daily life
attending to and dwelling on the negative - tend to pay more attention to negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives
absolutist thinking - ‘black-and-white thinking’, tend to think situations are all good or all bad

24
Q

what is systematic desensitisation?

A

anxiety hierarchy: created by therapist and client and is a list of situations related to the phobia arranged from least to most frightening
relaxation: therapist teaches patient to relax - using breathing exercises; patient may learn mental imagery techniques; meditation; or drugs (ie valium)
exposure: patient is exposed to phobic stimulus while in relaxed state, takes place across several sessions so is gradual

25
Q

what is reciprocal inhibition?

A

two emotional states cannot exist at the same time

26
Q

what is flooding?

A

stops phobic responses quickly, doesn’t allow option of avoidance behaviour, patient learns that phobic stimulus is harmless, fear decreases

process is called extinction: CS (dog) is encountered without UCS (being bitten), therefore CS no longer produces the CR (fear)

27
Q

systematic desensitisation evaluation

A

S - evidence base for its effectiveness
S - can be used to help people with learning disabilities

28
Q

flooding evaluation

A

S - highly cost-effective
L - highly unpleasant experience

29
Q

faulty information processing (beck’s negative triad)

A

do not process info in a positive light, focus on negative aspects, cognitive bias - overgeneralisation where they may make a sweeping conclusion based on a single incident, catastrophising - exaggerate a minor setback and believe that its a complete disaster

30
Q

self-schemas (beck’s negative triad)

A

self-schemas = packages of knowledge, mental framework based on experience, depressed people possess negative self-schemas - may come from negative experiences ie criticism: examples are ineptness schema, where sufferers expect to fail, self-blame schema makes them feel responsible for any misfortunes

31
Q

negative triad (beck’s negative triad)

A

according to beck, negative self-schemas & cognitive biases maintain the negative triad which is three types of negative thinking that occur automatically
negative view of the self, the world, and the future

32
Q

ellis’ abc model

A

A - ‘activating event’ that could trigger depression ie failing a test
B - ‘beliefs’ (interpretations) leading from this event - rational interpretation = hard test, didn’t revise enough - irrational interpretation = too stupid to pass
C - ‘consequences’ - rational beliefs = healthy emotional outcomes - irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotional outcomes ie depression

33
Q

beck’s negative triad evaluation

A

S - existence of supporting research - ‘cognitive vulnerability’ refers to ways that may predispose someone to becoming depressed
S - applications in screening & treatment for depression - assessing cognitive vulnerability allows psychologists to screen young people for depression
S - partial explanation - depressed people show patterns of cognition
C - some aspects are not particularly well explained by cognitive explanations (ie differing symptoms)

34
Q

ellis’ abc model evaluation

A

S - real world application - psychological treatment of depression - rational emotive behavioural therapy (REBT)
L - only explains reactive depression and not endogenous depression - many cases of depression do not have ‘activating events’
L - ethical issues - locates responsibility for depression purely with the depressed person - could be seen as blaming
C - may make some people motivated

35
Q

CBT: overview

A

begins with assessment
patient and therapist jointly identify goals for therapy and creating a plan to achieve them
key task is to identify where there might be negative & irrational thoughts that will benefit from a challenge

36
Q

CBT: beck’s cognitive therapy

A

identifying the negative automatic thoughts in negative triad
thoughts are then challenged
helps clients to test the reality of their negative beliefs
may be set homework - ie record when they enjoyed something (client as scientist)
therapist can refer back to homework in future if they claim not to enjoy anything

37
Q

CBT: Ellis’ rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)

A

ABC model becomes ABCD (dispute) E (effect)
REBT is based around identifying and disputing irrational thoughts
would involve a rigorous argument with the aim of changing irrational beliefs which then breaks the link between negative life events and depression

38
Q

types of disputing

A

logical disputing - does it make sense to think this way? does the negative thought logically follow from the facts?

empirical disputing - is there any actual evidence to support the negative belief?

39
Q

evaluation of CBT: depression

A

S - large body of evidence - CBT was just as effective when used on its own and more so when used alongside antidepressants
L - lack of effectiveness for severe cases & for clients with learning disabilities - may not be able to motivate themselves
C - CBT can be effective if done properly
L - relapse rates - 42% relapsed into depression within six months of ending treatment & 53% relapsed within a year

40
Q

genetic explanations of OCD

A

polygenic - OCD is caused by several genes
candidate genes - genes create a vulnerability for OCD
neurotransmitters - serotonin and dopamine
aetiologically heterogenous - one group of genes may cause OCD in one person and a different group of genes may cause OCD in another person

41
Q

genetic explanations of OCD evaluation

A

S - research support - variety of sources strongly suggest that some people are genetically vulnerable to OCD - twin studies
L - environmental risk factors - strong evidence for idea that genetics make people vulnerable to OCD - study showed over half of OCD clients in sample had had a traumatic experience

42
Q

neural explanations of OCD (role of serotonin)

A

neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying information from one neuron to another
serotonin is believed to help regulate mood
low levels of serotonin = transmission of mood-relevant information does not take place and so they may experience low mood
some cases of OCD may be explained by a reduction in the functioning of the serotonin system

43
Q

neural explanations of OCD (decision-making systems)

A

some cases (esp hoarding disorder) seem to be linked to impaired decision making
abnormal functioning of frontal lobes
frontal lobes -> responsible for logical thinking & making decisions
some evidence to suggest left parahippocampal gyrus functions abnormally in OCD

44
Q

neural explanation evaluation

A

S - research support - antidepressants that work purely on serotonin are effective in reducing OCD symptoms
L - no unique neural system - the serotonin-OCD link may not be unique to OCD

45
Q

behavioural characteristics of OCD

A

compulsions are repetitive - sufferers often feel compelled to repeat behaviours ie hand washing
compulsions reduce anxiety - performed to manage the anxiety created by the obsessions ie compulsive hand washing is performed as a response to an obsessive fear of germs
avoidance - attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it

46
Q

emotional characteristics of OCD

A

anxiety and distress - obsessive thoughts are unpleasant and frightening, anxiety can be overwhelming
accompanying depression - low mood and lack of enjoyment in activities
guilt and disgust - can feel irrational guilt over minor moral issues or disgust directed at the self or external objects such as dirt etc.

47
Q

cognitive characteristics of OCD

A

obsessions - obsessive thoughts that recur over and over again
cognitive strategies can be used to deal with obsessions ie a religious person tormented by guilt may pray or meditate
insight into excessive anxiety - are aware that their obsessions/compulsions are not rational - necessary for diagnosis of OCD
hypervigilant - maintain constant alertness and keep attention focused on potential hazards

48
Q

what is the ocd cycle?

A

obsessive thought -> anxiety -> compulsive behaviour -> temp relief

cycle repeats over and over

49
Q

SSRIs

A

SSRIS prevent the re-absorption and breakdown of serotonin which increases its levels in the synapse and will continue to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron

50
Q

combining SSRIs with other treatment

A

often used alongside CBT to treat OCD
drugs reduce a person’s emotional symptoms so OCD can engage more effectively with the CBT

51
Q

alternatives to SSRIs

A

tricyclics: older type of antidepressant ie clomipramine, acts on various systems including the serotonin system (has same effect as SSRIs), more severe side effects
SNRIs: different class of antidepressants, increase levels of serotonin and noradrenaline

52
Q

evaluation of drug therapy

A

S - evidence for effectiveness - SSRIs reduce symptom severity
C - may not be most effective treatments available
S - cost-effective and non-disruptive
L - serious side effects ie indigestion, blurred vision, weight gain

psychology (5 decks)

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