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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

Definitions of abnormality

A
  • Statistical infrequency
  • Deviation from social norms
  • Failure to function
  • Deviation from ideal mental health
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2
Q

What does defining a person or behaviour as abnormal imply?

A

Something undesirable and requiring change.

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3
Q

An objective definition

A
  • Must not depend on anyone’s opinion or point of view
  • Should produce the same results whoever applies it
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4
Q

Under inclusive

A

People may not get treatment

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5
Q

Over inclusive

A

People may be labelled as abnormal when they are not

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6
Q

Deviation

A

Moving away from

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7
Q

Statistical infrequency

A

Any behaviour that is rare (less than 5% of the population) is abnormal (based on the normal distribution curve)

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8
Q

A strength of statistical infrequency

A

It is an objective definition.

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9
Q

Weaknesses of statistical infrequency

A
  • Some disorders are not statistically infrequent e.g. depression
  • It does not take the desirability of a behaviour into account e.g. high IQ is considered gifted rather than abnormal
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10
Q

Deviation from social norms

A

You are abnormal if you break the (unwritten) rules of society

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11
Q

Weaknesses of deviation from social norms

A
  • Lacks temporal validity (social norms change over time) e.g. homosexuality was regarded as a mental illness until 1973
  • May be culturally relative (abnormality may vary depending on the culture or country) e.g. hearing voices may be accepted in some cultures but it is also a symptom of schizophrenia
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12
Q

Failure to function adequately

A

A person is considered abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. They may be unable to perform the behaviours necessary for daily life such as self care, interacting meaningfully with others and getting to work.

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13
Q

Limitations of failure to function adequately

A
  • It is subjective
  • Sometimes failure to function is normal e.g. in bereavement
  • Some people have psychological disorders but still function adequately e.g. Harold Shipman
  • Some people may be classified as not functioning adequately but do not have a psychological disorder e.g. smoking and drinking
  • Cultural issues
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14
Q

Deviation from ideal mental health

A

We define ideal mental health and anything that deviates from this is considered abnormal.

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15
Q

Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health

A

1) Positive view of the self
2) Capability for growth and development
3) Self actualisation
4) Autonomy and independence
5) Accurate perception of reality
6) Positive friendships and relationships
7) Environmental mastery
8) Resistance to stress

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16
Q

Limitations of deviation from ideal mental health

A
  • It is very demanding (very few people meet all the criteria all the time)
  • Mental health is subjective and hard to measure
  • Criteria is based on western individualist ideas
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17
Q

Rosenhan and Seligman

A

Created a list of characteristics that make up the definition for failure to function adequately.

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18
Q

Personal distress

A

The person is upset/depressed.

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19
Q

Maladaptive behaviour

A

Behaviour that prevents an individual from reaching major life goals.

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20
Q

Irrationality

A

There appears no good reason why a person would behave this way.

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21
Q

Unpredictability

A

Behaviour that is unpredictable and inappropriate for the situation.

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22
Q

Unconventional

A

Behaviour that differs substantially from what you’d expect.

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23
Q

Observer discomfort

A

Behaviour that makes other feel uncomfortable

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24
Q

Violation of moral standards

A

Breaking laws, taboos, unwritten social rules.

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25
Q

Phobias (BEHAVIOUR)

A
  • Avoidance
  • Freezing or fainting
  • Avoidance can interfere with daily life
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26
Q

Phobias (EMOTIONAL)

A
  • Anxiety
  • Fear
  • Panic
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27
Q

Phobias (COGNITIVE)

A
  • The irrational nature of the person’s thinking and the resistance to rational arguments
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28
Q

Depression (BEHAVIOUR)

A
  • Reduced energy
  • Wish to sleep all the time/ agitated and restless
  • Increased or decreased appetite
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29
Q

Depression (EMOTIONAL)

A
  • Sadness
  • Feeling empty
  • Worthless/hopeless
  • Low self-esteem
  • Despair
  • Anger
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30
Q

Depression (COGNITIVE)

A
  • Negative self-concept
  • Negative world view
  • Guilt
  • Irrational thoughts
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31
Q

OCD (BEHAVIOUR)

A
  • Compulsion lessens anxiety
  • Repetitive actions
  • Praying and counting
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32
Q

OCD (EMOTION)

A
  • Anxiety
  • Stress
  • Embarrassment and shame
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33
Q

OCD (COGNITIVE)

A
  • Intrusive thoughts or impulses
  • Uncontrollable thoughts
  • Recognise abnormalities
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34
Q

Conditioning

A

The process of shaping or changing a behaviour

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35
Q

The two most common behavioural explanations for the acquisition of phobias

A

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning

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36
Q

Famous examples of classical conditioning

A

Pavlov’s dogs and Little Albert

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37
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A basic form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus and elicits the same response.

38
Q

Little Albert

A

Neutral stimulus (rat) - no fear of rats (before conditioning)

Unconditioned stimulus (a loud bang) - causes fear and anxiety (UCR) (before conditioning)

Rat (NS) and loud bang (UCS) - fear (UCR) (during conditioning)

Rat (CS) - fear (CR) (evidence of conditioning)

39
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Changing a behaviour because of a reward or for avoidance. Once a fear is established, the individual will avoid the object or situation that produces the fear which strengthens the fear.

40
Q

The two-process model (Mowrer)

A

Phobias are ACQUIRED as a result of classical conditioning and MAINTAINED by operant conditioning.

41
Q

Strength of the behavioural approach to phobias

A

Behavioural therapies have been very effective in treating phobias
This success of the therapy supports the explanation and suggest phobias may have behavioural origins.

42
Q

Weaknesses of the behavioural approach to phobias

A
  • The model is reductionist as it ignores cognitive factors, failing to take into account the impact of irrational thoughts
  • The model is deterministic
    • Not everyone who is bitten by a dog will develop a phobia of dogs so there are individual differences (DiNardo)
    • We may be genetically predisposed to develop certain fears but they will only develop when triggered by a particular experience or event (preparedness)
43
Q

Systematic desensitisation

A
  • Treatment that uses classical conditioning
  • Based on reciprocal inhibition (a person cannot be relaxed and anxious at the same time)
  • Person learns to produce a relaxation response to a situation where they previously produced an anxiety response
  • Taught relaxation techniques
  • Patient in control (anxiety hierarchy)
44
Q

Flooding

A
  • Overwhelming the individual’s senses with the item or situation that causes anxiety so that the person realises that no harm will occur
  • No relaxation techniques or gradual build up
  • Repeated and intense exposure
  • Senses flooded with thoughts, images and actual experiences of the object of their phobia
45
Q

Strength of flooding

A

It is cost effective as it is a quick process. Therefore it saves money and more people can be treated.

46
Q

Weaknesses of flooding

A
  • It is less effective for some types of phobias especially ones that are more general such as fear of death. It is limited in its application.
  • It can be very traumatic as it causes high anxiety and can make the phobia worse.
47
Q

Strengths of systematic desensitisation

A
  • It is effective
  • It is suitable for lots of people as the patient is in control and can decide how high up the hierarchy they go
  • It is a more ethical treatment than flooding due to gradual exposure and relaxation techniques
48
Q

Aaron Beck proposed that

A

Some people are more vulnerable to depression than others.

49
Q

Cognitive vulnerability

A
  1. Faulty information processing
  2. Negative self-schemas
  3. The negative triad
50
Q

Faulty information processing

A
  • Fundamental errors in logic e.g. it’s my fault
  • Selectively attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positive aspects
  • Blow problems out of proportion
  • Think in terms of black and white and ignore middle ground
51
Q

Negative self-schemas

A

Depressed people have a negative self-schema and therefore interpret all the information about themselves in a negative way.

52
Q

Beck’s Model of Depression (1979) - the negative triad

A
  • Negative view of the self
  • Negative view of the world
  • Negative view of the future
53
Q

Ellis’ ABC model

A

A - activating event
B - belief
C - consequence

54
Q

Strengths of Beck’s theory

A
  • It has good supporting evidence as lots of research has supported the proposal that depression is associated with the aspects of cognitive vulnerability
  • It has practical application in CBT as all cognitive aspects of depression can be challenged in CBT
55
Q

Weakness of Beck’s theory

A

It does not explain all aspects of depression. Depression is a complex disorder with many symptoms. Beck’s negative triad ignores biological elements of depression such as a change in eating and sleeping patterns.

56
Q

Strength of Ellis’ theory

A

It has practical application in CBT. Irrational beliefs are challenged and this can help reduce depressive symptoms suggesting that the irrational beliefs had some role in the depression.

57
Q

Weaknesses of Ellis’ theory

A
  • It only offers partial explanation because not all depression arises as a result of an obvious cause (activating event)
  • It does not explain all aspects of depression such as experiences of anger and hallucinations
58
Q

Diathesis-stress model

A

Suggests that individuals have a biological vulnerability and a triggering event causes faulty thinking

59
Q

Beck’s CBT

A
  • Focuses on challenging the negative thoughts about the self, the world and the future
  • Client is encouraged to test the reality of their negative beliefs (reality testing)
60
Q

Ellis’s REBT

A
  • ABCDEF
    D= disputing irrational thoughts and beliefs, the therapist challenges them and encourages the client to think of alternative explanations or possibilities
    E= effects of the new beliefs and attitudes emerge
    F= feelings, the emotional responses that arise
  • Helps to alter rational beliefs into irrational beliefs
61
Q

Additional aspects of CBT

A

Homework tasks - may involve clients putting themselves into situations the would have previously avoided or telling a family member or friend how they really feel.
Behavioural activation - the client is encouraged to become more active and take part in pleasurable activities.

62
Q

Strengths of CBT as a treatment for depression

A
  • It is effective (52% effective - CBT alone and 85% effective - CBT + drugs)
  • It is cost effective as patients develop long term skills and CBT usually takes 18-20 sessions
  • There are long term benefits as patients can use the skills in the future
  • There is research to support CBT such as the study done by Beck and Weissman
63
Q

Weaknesses of CBT as a treatment for depression

A
  • It is difficult for patients who find concentration or talking difficult
  • The patient must be motivated and really want to change so this treatment works better for younger people
  • It relies on a good relationship between patient and therapist
  • Drug therapy may be more appropriate in severe cases
  • It focuses on the present and doesn’t explore past events
  • There is an over emphasis on the cognitive element. Sometimes the situation needs changing not just a person’s thinking e.g. domestic abuse
  • Relies on a well trained therapist
64
Q

Genetic explanation of OCD

A
  • Nestadt et al (2000) claim that genetic factors play a role in OCD
  • Evidence from twin and family studies shows that close relatives are more likely to have OCD
  • If a person has a first degree relative with OCD then they are 5x more likely to also have the disorder than the general population
65
Q

Twin study meta analysis (OCD)

A

Concordance rate for MZ (identical) twins is 68% but the rate for DZ (non-identical) twins is 31%. This suggests that there must be a genetic element to OCD as if there was not then we’d expect the concordance rates to be the same.

66
Q

Candidate gene

A

A gene that is believed to be related to a particular condition or disorder.

67
Q

Candidate genes for OCD

A
  • SERT gene (regulates serotonin)
  • COMT gene (regulates dopamine)
68
Q

Neural explanation of OCD - neurotransmitters

A
  • Serotonin transmits mood-relevant information
  • OCD is linked with low levels of serotonin in the brain
69
Q

Basal ganglia

A
  • People with OCD have hypersensitivity in their basal ganglia
  • People who develop brain injuries here often develop OCD
70
Q

Thalamus

A
  • Involved in primitive instincts such as safety behaviours
  • Overactive thalamus is linked with OCD
71
Q

Frontal lobe

A
  • The part of the brain for decision making and planning ahead
  • In OCD the frontal lobe is overactive which increases anxiety
72
Q

Strength of genetic explanation (twin and family studies)

A

It is backed by evidence e.g. Twin studies

73
Q

Weaknesses of genetic explanation (twin and family studies)

A
  • Family studies could also be used to explain environmental influences
  • Close relatives of OCD sufferers may have developed OCD through social learning by imitating and observing their behaviours
  • It is difficult to untangle the effects of the environment and genetic factors
74
Q

Strength of candidate genes

A

The candidate genes for OCD are genes which have been linked to OCD through research.

75
Q

Weaknesses of candidate genes

A
  • There are over 200 genes involved in OCD
  • Psychologists have not been successful in pinning down all the genes involved
  • Each genetic variation only increases the risk of OCD by a fraction - we can’t change people’s genes!
76
Q

Strength of neural explanations (neurotransmitters)

A

Allows medication to be developed.

77
Q

Weaknesses of neural explanations (neurotransmitters)

A
  • Drugs are not completely effective
  • Just because administering SSRIs decreases OCD symptoms does not mean that this was the cause in the first place
  • There is a 2-3 week time delay between taking the drugs and any improvements
78
Q

Strengths of neural explanations (areas of the brain)

A
  • Advances in technology have allowed researchers to investigate specific areas of the brain more accurately
  • Cleaning and checking behaviours are hard-wired in the thalamus
79
Q

The role of SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)

A

They prevent the re-absorption of serotonin which increases its levels in the synapse.

80
Q

Why are drugs often combined with CBT?

A

The drugs reduce the sufferer’s anxiety and depression so that they can engage more effectively with CBT.

81
Q

Strengths of drug therapy

A
  • Drug therapy is effective at tackling OCD symptoms and there is clear evidence to suggest this.
  • Drugs are cost effective and non-disruptive
82
Q

Weaknesses of drug therapy

A
  • Drugs can have side effects such as weight gain, dry mouth, sexual dysfunction and loss of memory
  • Drugs only treat the symptoms and not the cause - many patients relapse once the medication stops
  • Unreliable evidence for drug treatments - drug companies do not publish all of their results and may be suppressing evidence
  • Some cases of OCD follow trauma and in these cases drugs may not be appropriate
83
Q

The purpose of drugs to treat OCD

A

To decrease anxiety

84
Q

Benzodiazepines

A
  • Anti-anxiety drugs
  • Enhance activity of GABA (a neurotransmitter) and therefore slow down the CNS causing relaxation
85
Q

SNRIs

A
  • More recent drugs
  • Increase levels of serotonin and nor-adrenaline and are tolerated by those for whom SSRIs are not effective
86
Q

Obsessions

A

Internal components because they are thoughts

87
Q

Compulsions

A

External components because they are behaviours

88
Q

What does it mean if something is not 100%?

A

There must be other explanations
E.g. research into OCD doesn’t have an 100% inherited influence so there may be environmental explanations too

89
Q

Outline how flooding might be used to treat a phobia (2)

A

Immediate/intense/ repeated exposure
Prevention of avoidance
Until they are calm and the fear is extinguished

90
Q

Ost et al (1991)

A
  • 81 blood phobics and 56 needle phobics were asked to complete a questionnaire on their memories of the possible origins of their phobias
  • 52% of the patients attributed the onset of their phobias to conditioning experiences
  • 17% couldn’t remember any specific onset circumstances
  • A strength is that it has practical applications
  • A limitation is that the study was based on retrospective memory
91
Q

Davey (1992) behavioural explanation to phobias

A

Found that individuals with a fear of spiders had very different personal characteristics to those that were not. This suggests that fear of spiders was not learnt, but innate and related to certain personality traits.

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