Forensic Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Offender profiling
A
The process of predicting the characteristics of an offender based on the information available
2
Q
What will a forensic psychologist use to build an offender profile?
A
Evidence gathered from the scene to build an offender profile
3
Q
What does an offender profile outline?
A
The type of person likely to have committed the crime
4
Q
What is an offender profile based on?
A
Prior experiences and it uses computer databases to analyse what is already known
5
Q
The American approach of offender profiling
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The top down of FBI approach relies on previous experiences of crimes
6
Q
Hazelwood and Douglas
A
- Interviewed 36 serial killers and police officers in order to advance their theory
- They had a typology approach that offenders are mainly categorised by two types - organised and disorganised
7
Q
Crime scene - Organised
A
- Crime is planned
- Shows self-control at the crime scene
- Leaves few clues
- Victim is a targeted stranger
- Attempts to control the victim
8
Q
Offender - Organised
A
- Above average IQ
- Socially and sexually competent
- Married or co-habiting
- Experiencing anger/depression at time of offence
- Follows media coverage of crime
- Skilled occupation
9
Q
Crime scene - Disorganised
A
- Little planning/preparation
- Little attempt to hide evidence at the scene
- Minimum use of constraint
- Random, disorganised behaviour
10
Q
Offender - Disorganised
A
- Lives alone, near to crime scene
- Sexually and socially inadequate
- Unskilled occupation or unemployed
- Physically/sexually abused in childhood
- Frightened/confused at the time of attack
11
Q
Top down profiling stages
A
1) Data assimilation - reviews evidence
2) Crime scene classification - organised vs disorganised
3) Crime scene reconstruction - hypothesis on sequence of events
4) Profile generation - hypothesis of likely offender
12
Q
Evaluation of top down profiling 1 (particular crimes)
A
- A weakness of the top-down profiling is that it only applies to particular crimes
- It is best suited to crime scenes that reveal important details about the suspect e.g. weapon used
- More common offences, such as burglary do not lend themselves to profiling, as the crime scenes reveal little about the offender
- This means that it is not a useful approach in most crimes
13
Q
Evaluation of top down profiling 2 (unreliable)
A
- The method is based on flawed data from interviews with 37 dangerous serial killers
- These individuals can be highly manipulative and unreliable
- This data was used to create the typology theory
- This means that the theory could be wrong
14
Q
Evaluation of top down profiling 3 (outdated models of personality)
A
- It is based on outdated models of personality
- Typology classification is based on the assumption that offenders have patterns of behaviour and motivation that remain consistent
- Alison et al (2002) argue that behaviour is instead, driven by external factors that may be constantly changing
- This means that criminals may show organised and disorganised traits
15
Q
Evaluation of top down profiling 4 (false dichotomy)
A
- It creates a false dichotomy, as there is more likely to be a continuum than two distinct categories of offender
- Canter et al (2004) analysed murders by 100 US serial killers, finding no clear distinction between the two types of offenders
- Instead they found several subsets of organised-type crimes, and little evidence for disorganised types
- This means that the disorganised type may not exist
16
Q
The bottom-up approach
A
- British approach
- David Canter is the UK’s foremost profiling expert
- His bottom up approach looks for consistencies in offenders’ behaviour during the crime
- No initial assumptions are made about the offender
- The approach relies heavily on computer data bases instead and is much more scientific and objective than top down
17
Q
HOLMES
A
Home Office Large Major Enquiry System
18
Q
Investigative psychology
A
- Uses computer databases and Venn diagrams to look for similarities and differences in patterns between offences and offenders
- Interpersonal coherence
- Smallest space analysis
19
Q
Interpersonal coherence
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Assumes that people are consistent in their behaviour, so there will be correlations between the crime and their everyday life, although there may be changes over time
20
Q
Smallest space analysis
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A statistical technique which explores correlations between crime scene details and offender characteristics from large numbers of similar cases. Tries to link crimes together that may have the same offender.
21
Q
Geographical profiling
A
A set of techniques for making inferences about crime and criminals from the location and timing of offences
22
Q
Maradurer
A
They commit crimes within a defined radius of where they live. Link to circle theory
23
Q
Commuter
A
They travel to another area to commit their crimes. This is a less common approach.
24
Q
Circle theory
A
A circle drawn to encompass all the crimes in a series is likely to contain the offender’s base (Canter and Larkin, 1993)
25
Interpersonal consistency
The way an offender behaves at the scene, including how they 'interact' with the victim, may reflect their behaviour in everyday situations
26
Timing of offences
Information of the geographical location of crimes becomes more useful when combined with information about when offences occurred
27
Strengths of the bottom up approach
- It is scientific and therefore objective and more reliable
- It has a wider application than top down
- 45 UK police forces were surveyed and 75% said that the process was useful
28
Limitations of the bottom up approach
- Does not consider the role of personality in profiling
- Profiling cannot reliably identify and offender it can only narrow it down
- Only 3% of 45 UK police forces said that bottom up profiling actually helped to catch the offender
- Most offenders a Marauders so is there really a difference? What if their home doesn't fall into the centre of the circle?
29
Genetic throwbacks
Lombroso believed that criminality is inherited. Criminal are genetic throwbacks meaning that they are uncivilised. This is evident in physical features.
30
Atavisitc features
According to Lombroso, individuals engaging in crime presented "atavistic" features. These atavistic or primitive features suggested that the criminals had not followed the usual evolutionary development other members of society had gone through.
31
Lombroso's study
- Investigated the facial and cranial features of Italian convicts both living and dead.
- After examining over 383 living criminals he concluded that 21% had one atavistic feature and 43% had at least five
- The majority of crimes were accounted for by atavistic characteristics
32
Strengths of Lombroso's theory
- He is credited as shifting the emphasis in crime research away from moralisitc discourse, towards a more scientific realm
- He revealed that crime may not simply be as a result of free will (promotes fairness)
33
Limitations of Lombroso's theory
- Theory has been discounted by Goring (1913) who compared 3000 criminals with 3000 non-criminals. He found no differences except for the fact that criminals were smaller and below average intelligence
- Lombroso had no control group
- He ignored the role of the environment - poverty, poor diet, manual labour could have caused these features
- He was accused of scientific racism e.g. dark skin, curly hair are linked to people of African heritage
- The issue of eugenics - selective breeding
34
Genetic explanations of offending behaviours
Suggest that genes or a combination of genes make a person predisposed to crime
35
Family studies (Offending behaviours)
- Osborne and West (1979)
- 40% of sons with fathers with criminal convictions had committed a crime before the age of 18, compared to only 13% of a control group
36
Twin studies (Offending behaviours)
- Lange (1930): investigated (MZ) and 17 non-identical (DZ) twins where one of them had served time in prison. Lange found that 10 of the MZ twins but only 2 DZ twins had a twin in prison. Lange concluded that genetic factors must play a role in offending
- High concordance for identical twins suggests genetics play a role but if offending was completely genetic you'd expect 100% concordance for MZ twins
37
Candidate genes (biological explanations of offending behaviours)
- Tiihonen (2014) studied 900 offenders in Finland and found that 2 genes may be responsible for criminality
- MAOA gene which controls serotonin and dopamine in the brain and is linked to aggressive behaviour
- The CDH13 gene which is linked to substance abuse and ADHD
- They estimate that 5-10% of all violent crime in Finland is due to abnormalities of this gene
38
Diathesis-stress model (biological explanations of offending behaviours)
Caspi (2002) used data from a study of 1000 people since their birth in the 1970s and found within men who had performed anti-social behaviour, 12% had low MAOA genes and had experienced maltreatment as babies. These 12% were responsible for 44% of violent convictions
39
Predictors for becoming a violent offender according to Raine
- Low resting heart rate
- Complications in birth
- Mother smoking/drinking
- Low function in pre-frontal cortex
40
Neural explanations of offending behaviours
- Some evidence suggests that the brains of criminals may be different to others
- There is a link to Antisocial Personality disorder (APD) which involves a reduction in emotional response and empathy
- Reduced volume in the amygdala means you a 4 times more likely to commit a violent crime
41
Prefrontal cortex (offending behaviours)
- Raine (2000): From brain scanning images there is evidence that those with APD have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex which regulates emotional and moral behaviour
- There was also a 11% reduction in grey matter
42
Mirror neurons (Offending behaviours)
- Criminals with APD experience empathy sporadically
- Keysers (2011) found that only when criminals were asked to empathise did their mirror neuron activate which suggests they have a 'switch' to turn empathy on and off
43
Biological basis of personality traits - Eysenck
- Our personality traits are biological in origin and come about from the type of nervous system we inherit
- Therefore, all personality types - including the criminal personality type - have an innate, biological basis
44
Extraverts (Eysenck)
- Have an underactive nervous system which means they constantly seek excitement, stimulation and are likely to engage in risk taking behaviours
- Also tend not to condition easily and do not learn from mistakes
45
Neurotic (Eysenck)
Individuals tend to be nervous, jumpy and over-anxious, and their general instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict
46
The criminal personality type
- Neurotic extravert - a combination of all the characteristics and behaviours described above for both neuroticism and extraversion
- In addition, Eysenck suggested that the typical offender will also score highly on measures of psychoticism - a personality type that is out of that is characterised as cold, unemotional and prone to aggression
47
The role of socialisation
- In Eysenck's theory, personality is linked to criminal behaviour via socialisation processes
- Eysenck saw criminal behaviour as developmentally immature in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification, they are impatient and cannot wait for things
- Eysenck believed that people with high E and N scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition. As a result they would not learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses and anxiety. Consequently, they would be more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presented itself
48
Evaluation of Eysenck's theory of a criminal personality (supporting evidence)
- There is supporting evidence from Eysenck and Eysenck who compared 2070 male prisoners' scores on the EPI with 2422 male controls
- They found that in all age groups the prisoners were higher than the controls on extraversion, neuroticism and pyschoticism
- This supports the theory because it is exactly how Eysenck described the criminal personality
- On the other hand, when Farrington reviewed the research in this area, he found that there was no difference in scores on extroversion and neuroticism
- This suggests that criminals do not have the personality Eysenck described
- So this disproves the theory
49
Evaluation of Eysenck's theory of a criminal personality (EEG)
- Another weakness is that EEG studies have found little difference in the arousal levels between extroverts and introverts
- This casts doubt on Eysenck's theory because he predicted extroverts have underactive nervous systems
- Suggesting that this is not the case, extroversion is not linked to our biological nervous system
50
Evaluation of Eysenck's theory of a criminal personality (simplistic)
- A limitation of Eysenck's theory is that it is thought to be oversimplistic as it only has one single criminal personality type
- Research has found many different types of male offender in terms of age of first offence and how long offending persists. Modern personality theory - the 5 factor model, suggests that as well as extraversion and neuroticism there is openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness
- This means that there are lots of combinations so Eysenck's theory may not represent the range of personalities of offenders
51
Evaluation of Eysenck's theory of criminal personality (culture bias)
- Another criticism is that Eysenck's theory has been accused of culture bias (beta bias)
- He presumed his theory would apply to all cultures however research on Hispanic and African American prisoners found they all scored less on extraversion than non-criminal controls
- This means that Eysenck's theory is not universal and cannot be generalised to other cultures. Lacks population validity
52
Evaluation of Eysenck's theory of criminal personality (research issues)
- Furthermore, there are lots of research issues - can we measure personality using a psychological test? Can we reduce personality to a score? Is personality a stable entity over time?
- Researchers suggest our personality can change depending on who we are with and the situation
- This means that the methodology used by Eysenck lacks internal validity
53
Evaluation of Eysenck's theory of criminal personality (getting caught)
- Most research has been on male prisoners and criminals that have been caught
- So the personality type may not be applicable to all criminals (as many have not been caught)
54
Kohlberg's theory - levels of moral reasoning
- Interviewed boys and men about the reasons for their moral decisions
- He used this evidence to construct a stage theory of moral development
- Preconventional level, conventional level, post-conventional level
- The Heinz dilemma
55
Pre-conventional level
Children accept the rules of authority figures and judge actions by their consequences. Actions that result in punishment are bad; those that bring rewards are good
Stage 1: Punishment and obedience: focuses on rules enforced by punishment
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose: what counts as right is defined by one's own needs
56
Conventional level
Individuals continue to believe that conformity to social rules is desirable, but this is not out of self-interest. Maintaining the current social system ensures positive human relationships and social order
Stage 3: Good boy/girl: what is right is defined by what others expect
Stage 4: Social order: reference to duties of each citizen
57
Post-conventional level
Individual moves between unquestioning compliance to the norms of the social system. The individual now defines morality in terms of abstract moral principles that apply to all societies and situations
Stage 5: Social contact: individual rights may be more important than the law
Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
58
What level of moral reasoning do criminals tend to show?
Criminals tend to show lower levels of moral reasoning (pre-conventional in their thinking) and focus on avoiding punishment and gaining reward so they will commit the crime if they think they can get away with it
59
The two types of cognitive distortions
Hostile attribution bias
Minimalisation
60
Hostile attribution bias
- Someone has a leaning towards thinking the worst e.g. thinking that when someone smiles at you they are thinking bad things about you
- This is most likely to be linked to increased levels of aggression
61
Minimalisation
- Underplaying the consequences of an action in order to reduce negative emotions, such as feeling guilty
- E.g. a burglar stealing from a wealthy family
62
Evaluation of Kohlberg's model
- Violent youths have significantly lower moral development even when controlling for social background
- Palmer and Hollin compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders and 126 offenders. The offenders were more likely to be at a preconventional level. Their morality is based on gaining rewards and avoiding punishment so will commit crime if they can get away with it/gain rewards
- This supporting study has a good sample size which improves validity
- Research using 11 moral dilemmas found offenders were less mature in their moral reasoning - could be due to a lack of roleplay opportunities in childhood which limits moral development
63
Evaluation of cognitive distortions
- Supporting evidence
- 55 violent offenders were compared with a non-aggressive matched control group - the violent offenders were more likely to judge neutral faces as angry/hostile
- Surveys of sexual offenders found 54% of rapists denied they'd committed an offence, 36% of child molesters said the child consented and 35% said their crimes were affectionate not sexual
- There is a correlation between reducing denial/minimalisation in therapy and reoffending (those that accepted their crime/faced up to harm done were less likely to reoffend)
64
Differential Association Theory
- Suggests that offender behaviour can be explained entirely in terms of social learning
- People vary in the frequency with which they associate with others who have a more or less favourable attitude towards crime
- These attitudes influence our own attitudes and behaviour
- Developed by sociologist Sutherland in 1939
65
Key principles of differential association theory
- Criminal behaviour is learned rather than inherited
- The learning experiences (differential associations) vary in frequency and intensity for each individual
- It is learned via the association with others, through our intimate personal groups
- If the number of favourable attitudes outweigh the unfavourable ones, then a person becomes and offender (pro crime vs anti crime)
66
Farringdon (2006) The Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development
- A prospective longitudinal survey of the development of offending and antisocial behaviour in 411 males
- First studied at age 8 in 1961, when they were all living in a working-class deprived inner-city area of London
- Findings described their criminal careers up to age 50, looking at both officially recorded convictions and self reported offending
- 41% were convicted of at least 1 offence between the age of 10-50
- The average conviction career lasted from 19-28 and included 5 convictions
- The most important childhood risk factors at age 8-10 for later offending were family criminality, daring or risk taking, low school attainment, poverty and poor parenting
67
Evaluation of differential association
- It doesn't count for individual differences. Not everyone from crime-ridden backgrounds will become criminals
- Despite its scientific claims, DA is difficult to test. The amount of socialisation cannot easily be operationalised.
- The research is correlational. It is possible that offenders seek out another offenders, rather than being influenced by them
+ DA signifies a shift from biological determinism of the poor to a recognition of social factors. Sutherland introduced 'white collar crime' to show how crimes can be clustered among social groups e.g. fraud among the middle classes
+ Accounts for all crime
68
Psychodynamic explanations of offending behaviour (Blackburn)
If the superego is deviant then criminal behaviour is inevitable because the id is given free rein and not properly controlled
69
The weak superego
There is an absence of the same sex parent in the phallic stage. This means that the child cannot identify with the same sex parent. This means that the superego is not fully formed and the child has a lack of understanding of the difference between right and wrong. The superego does not punish the child through feelings of guilt. This means that the child will show criminal or immoral behaviour as the superego does not hold them back
70
The deviant superego
When the child identifies with their same sex parent, the parent they identify with is immoral or has immoral standards of behaviours. This leads the child to internalise morals that are not acceptable. This means that they do not see criminal behaviours in the same way as others and won't associate guilt with showing criminal behaviours.
71
The over-harsh superego
A healthy superego is firm and has rules of what behaviours are and are not acceptable. If these rules are broken, the superego will be forgiven. This is different from the over-harsh superego, which will not be forgiving, which increases guilt for wrongdoing and will lead the child to unconsciously seek opportunities where they will be reprimanded to reduce their sense of guilt. This leads to criminal behaviour to satisfy the superego's need for punishment. Due to strict parents.
72
Evaluation of psychodynamic explanations to offending behaviour
- Alpha gender bias. Freud predicted that girls would have less motivation to identify and internalise the mother (no fear of castration). In fact, most crime is committed by men
- Conflicting evidence. Although there is evidence to say that if your same sex parent is a criminal, you will be a criminal, there is not evidence to say that single parent and strict families lead to criminal children
- Too much emphasis on the unconscious which cannot be empirically tested. Not scientific and psychology wants to be a science
73
Custodial sentencing
A judicial sentence where the offender is punished by serving time in prison or in some other closed therapeutic and/or educational institution such as a psychiatric hospital
74
Recidivism
Reoffending
75
Aims of custodial sentencing
Deterrence
Retribution
Incapacitation
Rehabilitation
76
Deterrence
Prison should be unpleasant to put individuals and society off committing crime
77
Retribution
Prison is revenge. Society is enacting justice. If you commit crime, you should be punished.
78
Incapacitation
Removing dangerous people from society
79
Rehabilitation
We need people to leave prison, ready to join society.
We don't want them to reoffend.
80
Effects of custodial sentencing
Stress and depression
Institutionalisation
Prisonisation
81
Stress and depression
Suicide rates and self harm are considerably higher in prison than in the general population (15 times higher for suicide, most at risk are single young men in the first 24hrs of confinement)
The oppressive regime can trigger psychological disorders in those that are vulnerable
82
Institutionalisation
Having adopted norms/ routines of prison life, inmates may no longer be able to cope in the outside world
83
Prisonisation
Refers to the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an 'inmate code'. Behaviour that may be considered unacceptable on the outside will be encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of the institution (link to differential association theory)
84
Deindividuation
Prisoners may experience a loss of individual identity which is associated with increased aggression
85
Does prison work?
- Recidivism is a key problem
- In the UK (2013) 57% of offenders reoffended within 1 year
- In 2007, 14 prisons recorded reoffending rates of up to 70%
- UK and USA have some of the highest recidivism rates in the world
- This shows that custodial sentencing is not helping rehabilitation
- Norway has the lowest recidivism rates in Europe (less than 1/2 the UK figures). In Norway their are more open prisons and a greater emphasis on rehabilitation and skills development
86
Why should we not make generalisations about prisons and reoffending?
- Not all offenders react in the same way and not all prisons are the same
- Many of those convicted already have pre-existing psychological and emotional conditions
87
Risks of prisons
- There is a risk that prisons become universities of crime - differential association theory
- This area is very political in nature - governments may exaggerate the benefits of prison to appear tough on crime
88
The aim of a token economy
To manage and monitor offenders during their sentence and hopefully reduce the likelihood that they will reoffend
89
What type of conditioning are token economies based on?
Operant conditioning
90
Positive reinforcement in terms of token economies
Reinforcement of desirable behaviours with a token that can then be exchanged for some kind of reward
91
Punishment in terms of token economies
Tokens withheld/removed
92
What type of reinforcers are tokens?
Tokens are secondary reinforcers because they derive their value from their association with a reward
93
Supportive evidence (Hobs and Holt) (Evaluation of token economies)
- 3 young offenders institutions and 1 control group
- Categories included following rules, interacting with peers and completing assigned chores
- Staff were given extensive training
- The 125 delinquent males and the control group were taken to a token economy store once a week where they could buy drinks, sweets, toys and cigarettes. They could also save tokens and use them for more expensive off-campus activities such as baseball or a visit home
- Found a 27% improvement in behaviour with the young offenders compared to no increase in the same time period for the control group
94
Evaluation of token economies
- Easy to implement
- Needs to be consistent, therefore doesn't work if no training/high staff turnover
- Little rehabilitative value - doesn't transfer to the real world
- Ethics - manipulative, dehumanising. Should we be withdrawing things like exercising/contact with loved ones
- Passive - offenders can just play along with token economy without changing their actual character. They don't need to reflect on behaviour
- Not always practical - Research suggests it works best if individually tailored - some need immediate rewards and different privileges
95
Novaco (Anger management)
- Suggests that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts
- He believes that in some people anger is often quick to surface especially in situations that are perceived to be threatening
96
The aim of anger management
Not to prevent anger but to recognise it a manage it using calming techniques to deal with situations is a positive way.
97
3 stages of anger management
Cognitive preparation
Skills acquisition
Applications Process
Mnemonic for remembering these stages:
Calm People Should Avoid Angry People
98
Cognitive preparation
The offender must reflect on past experiences and consider the typical pattern of their anger. They identify triggers and the therapist highlights any irrational interpretations e.g. someone looking at them is viewed as confrontational - the therapist is trying to break what may well be an automatic response for the offender.
99
Skills acquisition
The offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger provoking situations more rationally and effectively. These can be positive e.g. positive self-talk, behavioural e.g. assertiveness training and physiological e.g. relaxation/meditation. Promotes the idea that it is possible for the offender to be in control of their emotions rather than ruled by them.
100
Applications process
In the final phase, offenders can practise their skills within a carefully monitored environment . Such role play will involve the offender and therapist re-enacting scenarios that have triggered anger/violence in the past. This requires commitment from the offender (to see the scenario as real) and bravery from the therapist (to wind up the offender). Successful negotiation of the role play will be positively reinforced by the therapist.
101
Keen et al (2000)
- Looked at the progress made with young offenders aged 17-21 who took part in a national anger management package
- The course consists of eight 2hr sessions - the first seven over a 3 week period and the last session a month later
- Initially offenders did not take it seriously and would forget to bring their diaries etc
- The final outcomes were generally positive - offenders reported increased awareness of their anger and increased capacity for self control
102
Ireland (2004): The effectiveness of Anger Management
- Aimed to investigate whether anger management programmes are successful in reducing aggression in young male offenders
- A natural experiment where 50 male prisoners who had completed an anger management course were compared with a control group of 37 male prisoners
- Both groups of of males in the experimental and control conditions were then given:
1) a cognitive behaviour interview
2) the Wing Behavioural Checklist, which was completed by prison officers
3) A self-report questionnaire on anger management with 53 items completed by the prisoners themselves
- An experimental group then completed their CALM treatment , while the control group had no intervention and then both groups were assessed on all three measures again
- Prisoners who had completed CALM rated themselves lower on the anger questionnaire and were rated lower on aggression by the prison officers
- There was no significant reduction in either of these measures in the control group.
- 92% of the treatment group showed improvements on at least one measure
- It is unclear whether these programmes have a long-term effect
103
Evaluation of anger management (cause)
It tackles the cause of anger management (i.e. thought processes) rather than superficial behaviour modification and so therefore creating more permanent change as reduced rates of recidivism. This demonstrates an improvement to other methods such as token economies. Anger management is more focused on rehabilitation.
104
Evaluation of anger management (lack of causality)
There may not be causality between anger and crime i.e. crimes such as fraud do not involve anger. Furthermore, Loza (1999) found no difference between anger levels between violent and non-violent offenders. Therefore, this method of dealing with offending behaviour only works for violent offenders where anger is involved.
105
Evaluation of anger management (expensive)
Programmes are expensive to run as they require highly trained staff to deal with violent offenders and they require high levels of commitment from offenders which may be problematic if they are apathetic. Therefore, anger management is not cost effective as it has implications for the economy.
106
Restorative justice
A system of criminal justice which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with victims and the community at large.
107
Aims of restorative justice
- Rehabilitation: The victim explains the impact of the crime so the offender can understand their perspective
- Atonement: The offender may offer compensation and show remorse
- Victim's perspective: The victim can feel less powerless if they have a voice. They may understand the offender's story better, reducing their sense of victimisation
108
A theory of restorative justice
Watchel and McCold (2003) drew up a theory the represents the way 'stakeholders' (victims, communities, offenders) can be individually or jointly supported
109
Strengths of restorative justice (victims find it beneficial)
- Victims find restorative justice beneficial and this is supported by evidence
- The UK Restorative Justice Council (2015) report 85% satisfaction from victims after face-to-face meetings with offender
- Digan (2005) found that victims were more satisfied by this process than when cases go through court
- This research shows that, for a large range of crimes, from theft to violent crime, restorative justice benefits victims
110
Strengths of restorative justice (re-offending rates are reduced)
- Re-offending rates are reduced by 14% overall by restorative justice programmes
- Sherman and Strang (2007) reviewed 20 studies of face-to-face meetings in three countries, and found reduced re-offending in all cases
- For example, one study found an 11% re-offending rate compared to 37% in matched controls who served prison sentences
- This shows that restorative justice is also successful in its aim of reducing crime rates
111
Strengths of restorative justice (other advantages)
- Restorative justice also has other advantages compared to custodial sentencing
- It is must less expensive, reduces exposure to criminal attitudes in prison, and promotes offender accountability
- Facing a victim may still be sufficiently unpleasant to act as a punishment and a deterrent to future crime
- Overall, restorative justice meets many of the aims of custodial sentences while also addressing the needs of victims
112
Limitations of restorative justice (not a global solution)
- The system isn’t able to apply to all crimes committed
- Firstly, the offender has to admit to the crime
- Secondly, some crimes may not have a direct victim, and some victims may decline the offer
- This means that restorative justice can’t be a global solution to dealing with all offending behaviour
113
Limitations of restorative justice (ethical concerns)
- We should consider possible harmful effects on the victim and the offender
- One concern is whether the victim may feel worse afterwards
- Also, sometimes the victims can abuse their position of power over the offender, who may be young or vulnerable, and may try to shame them
- So restorative justice programmes must be carefully managed to ensure benefit to both victim and offender
114
Benefits of restorative justice for the victim
- Enable them to put the crime behind them, for example why they were targeted. Acts as closure.
- Empowerment in terms of a sense of personal power
- Developed an understanding of why the crime was committed
115
Benefits of restorative justice for the offender
- Opportunity to address and heal the underlying issues and opportunity to change
- Developed an understanding of the effect of their actions
- Opportunity to apologise and accept responsibility
116
Benefits of restorative justice for the wider community and economy
- Restorative justice reduces the frequency of reoffending, so community is safer
- Saves money - £8 in savings to the criminal justice system for every £1 spent on restorative justice
- Shows the community that offenders are making up for their actions so gives a sense of retribution
117
Mednick (1984) adoption studies
- 14427 Danish adopted children were analysed according to concordance
- The concordance rates of criminality were compared between the adopted children and their adopted parents and the adopted children and their biological parents
- 13.5% of adopted children had a criminal conviction with biological or adoptive parents with no criminal conviction
- 14.7% of adoptive children had a conviction with at least one adoptive parent who had a criminal conviction
- 20% of adoptive children had a conviction with at least one biological parent who had a criminal conviction
- 24.5% of adopted children had a conviction rate with at least one biological parent and one adoptive parent with a criminal conviction
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Strengths of Mednick’s adoption study
- Adoption studies are important in the nature vs nurture debate as they can separate out the genetic and environmental influences
- The sample size was very large, increasing the validity of the results
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Limitations of Mednick’s adoption study
- The study only looked at criminal convictions, not at crimes committed. This is a limitation of the study.
- In other words, people could have committed crimes and not been convicted. This could cause different results
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Jacob’s (1965) Y Chromosome studies
- By examining a prison population, Jacobs found that there was a higher percentage of prisoners with the atypical chromosome pattern (XYY) compared to a non-prisoner population
- The study stated that an extra Y chromosome could be linked to increased testosterone production and increased violent behaviour
- These could lead to criminal behaviour
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What does the XYY chromosomal pattern result in
- Hyperactivity
- Increased impulsivity
- Lower IQ
