Issues And Debates In Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
What type of culture was psychology developed in?
A
Western cultures
2
Q
Three possible reasons for not having studied other cultures
A
- Psychologists may have viewed other non-Western cultures as primitive or not worthy of studying
- Cross-cultural research is expensive, time-consuming, and demands many resources
- Psychologists may have made an assumption that other cultures were the same as their own
3
Q
Etic research
A
When research based on one culture is generalised and applied to all cultures
4
Q
Strengths of etic research
A
- Humans from various cultures do have similarities
- Human physiology is fairly consistent across all cultures
- Certain behaviours are also universal: language development, aggression levels and cognitive development
5
Q
Weaknesses of etic research
A
- The vast majority of scientific research involves taking samples of a whole population
- Researchers can be biased due to an imposed etic
6
Q
Emic research
A
Based on studying a specific culture
7
Q
Strengths of emic research
A
- By doing these studies, researcher can avoid cultural bias and bias because of imposed etic
- They are not trying to generate universal laws
8
Q
Weaknesses of emic research
A
- Bias can still happen
- This is due to researchers over-emphasising the differences between the cultural groups and not looking at the differences within the cultural groups
9
Q
Alpha bias
A
- Exaggerating the differences between men & women.
- Theories assume there are real and enduring differences between men and women.
10
Q
Beta bias
A
- Exaggerating the similarity between men & women.
- They minimise gender differences.
- Assume all people are the same and so it is reasonable to apply theories/research to both men and women.
- Often happens when findings obtained from men are applied to women without additional validation.
11
Q
Androcentrism
A
Taking male thinking/behaviour as normal, regarding female thinking/behaviour as deviant, inferior, abnormal, or ‘other’ instead of just being different.
12
Q
Ethnocentric psychology
A
- Research is based on one culture
- Theories are then generalised to all cultures
13
Q
Asch (1951)
A
- Conformity research
- Only Americans were used so the research is ethnocentric
- There study also only used males which makes it an example of gender bias
14
Q
Milgram (ethnocentrism)
A
- Milgram’s obedience experiments is an example of ethnocentric research
- The study was conducted after the atrocities committed by the Nazis in WW2
- This research has imposed etic as only American were used and he did not take into account the cultural differences between Nazi Germany and USA
15
Q
Social implications of culture bias
A
If studies are culturally biased then the theories from the studies will also be culturally biased. These theories have an impact on broader society and this can be problematic when culturally biased theories affect psychological practice and therapies.
16
Q
Cochrane and Sashidharan
A
- Examined diagnosis rates of schizophrenia in the UK
- They compared rates in people of African-Caribbean origin to the rest of the population
- Found that those of African-Caribbean origin were seven times more likely to be diagnosed
- People could conclude that people of African-Caribbean origin may have a higher genetic predisposition to schizophrenia but rates in the Caribbean are no higher than the UK so people could have a misconception about schizophrenia rates in African-Caribbean’s
17
Q
Littlewood and Lipsedge (1989)
A
- Regarding schizophrenia they found that African- Caribbean patients were more likely to be prescribed stronger doses of medication
- The symptoms could be exactly the same as patients of other ethnicities and they would still be prescribed higher doses
- This suggests that doctors were interpreting the symptoms as being much more severe
18
Q
Two main issues with cross-cultural research
A
- Difficulty in interpretation
- Difficulty in replicability. This causes results to be less valid
19
Q
Reasons for difficulty in interpretation and replicability
A
Interpretation:
- Challenging communication between different languages with beliefs, customs and colloquialisms being difficult to translate or understand
- Results in data being misinterpreted
- Can result in ethnocentric bias because researchers are judging behaviours against their own cultural norms
Replicability:
- There is a decreased ability to properly translate procedures
20
Q
Cultural relativism (reducing culture bias)
A
The idea that there is no universal standard to behaviour
21
Q
Representative sampling (reducing culture bias)
A
- All sub-groups within a larger group should be represented
- Sampling should be representative of all sub-groups from which you want to draw conclusions
- This will allow for generalisability of results
22
Q
Context (reducing culture bias)
A
- Research should be conducted in meaningful contexts and use researchers local to the culture being studied
- This allows for issues of imposed etic to be reduced
23
Q
What are the two competing theories about what guides behaviour?
A
Determinism
Free will
24
Q
Biological determinism
A
Focuses on the argument that genes determine our dispositions, behaviours and responses
25
Psychic determinism
Focuses on learned unconscious behaviours (rather than conscious decisions) guiding our behaviour
The assumption that adult behaviour is determined by a mix of innate drives and early experiences
26
Environmental determinism
Focuses on things like conditioning (to survive in an environment we may have to learn a behaviour) and this learned behaviour will then determine our actions
27
A disadvantage of determinism
It is unfalsifiable
28
Reaction range
Gottesman (1963) says that certain characteristics, like height, weight and intelligence have a reaction range
Everyone has a genetic potential (genotype) for these characteristics but but the environment will determine to what extent this potential will be achieved
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Reactive
A persons experiences can be moulded by their genetics e.g. people usually act more positively towards attractive people
30
Active
When people with certain genetic qualities actively seek out particular environments e.g. those who inherited height IQ might actively seek out universities
31
Nomothetic research
- Tries to find universal laws that can be applied to whole populations of people
- Quantitative research
32
Strengths of nomothetic research
- It is a highly scientific approach as it is quantitative
- The studies can be highly controlled, avoid extraneous variables and bias
- Objective data can be obtained rather than subjective data
33
Weaknesses of nomothetic research
- Low ecological validity due to lab studies which means it is rare that the results can validly verify applied to real life
- By examining the whole population, some details are going to be missed or ignored
- Behaviour that does not fit into the norm of the genera’s laws created is sometimes not explained
34
Idiographic research
- Focuses on individuals (remember ‘I’ for individual)
- Looks at the individual in detail
- Relies on qualitative methods such as questionnaires, case studies, interviews and observations of individuals
35
Strengths of idiographic research
- It can be useful in different cases
- By focusing on the individual, a more complete explanation is likely compared to the nomothetic approach
36
Weaknesses of idiographic research
- By focusing on individuals, such as in case studies, it is difficult to generalise findings to a whole population
- Idiographic research is usually qualitative, so it can be more subjective. For this reason, it can be seen as less scientific than nomothetic research
37
Self-determination
Free from external influences, free to choose.
38
The humanistic approach and free will
- Humanistic psychologists argue that self-determination is a necessary part of human behaviour
- Rogers claimed that if your behaviour is controlled by other factors, we cannot take responsibility for it
39
Moral Responsibility
- The basis of moral responsibility is that an individual is in charge of their own actions
- According to the law, children and the mentally ill do not have this level of responsibility. Otherwise there is the assumption that a 'normal' adult's behaviour is self determined
- Humans are accountable for their actions , regardless of innate factors for the influences of early experience
40
A counterargument for biological determinism
Twin studies do not have 100% concordance rate so no behaviour/disorder is 100% genetic
41
Examples of environmental determinism
- Phobias - you do not choose to be afraid of something
- Learning theory of attachment
- Differential association theory
42
Scientific determinism
- Scientific research is based on the belief that all events have a cause
- Due to the manipulation of an IV to measure the effect on the DV
- Science is based on cause and effect
- The goal of psychology is to predict behaviour so every behaviour must have a determining cause
43
Evaluation of free will vs determinism (oversimplistic)
- A simple debate of free will vs determinism is oversimplistic
- Another point of view is that free will and determinism can coexist together
- This is soft determinism
- Even the humanistic approach allows some restrictions on behaviour
- While biology and past experience do determine some behaviours, we also have some choice as well
44
Evaluation of free will vs determinism (scientific determinism)
- Scientific determinism has had hugely useful applications e.g. the development of treatments
- As we are able to predict and control human behaviour in a scientific manner, therapies for schizophrenia such as antipsychotics can be effective
45
Evaluation of free will vs determinism (research support for determinism)
- Determinism has some research support
- Libet et al (1983)
- Recorded EEG activity in motor areas of the brain before the person had a conscious decision to move their finger
- Suggesting that the 'choice' was only a read -out of a pre-determined action
- fMRI studies have found activity in the prefrontal cortex can happen up to 10 seconds before the decision
- However, Trevena and Miller (2009) suggested that the brain activity is simply a 'readiness to act' rather than an intention to move
46
Evaluation of free will vs determinism (create a depressing view of human nature)
- Assumptions of determinism create a depressing view of human nature
- Free will/determinism is also a highly socially sensitive research field e.g. is it central to ideas about how crimes should be punished?
- May be associated with an external locus of control
- Thinking that we can't change a bad world is a feature of Beck's negative triad
47
Evaluation of free will vs determinism (ethnocentric)
- The value placed on individual free will is very ethnocentric
- The importance of self-determination may vary between different cultures
- More prominent for individualist societies
- Collectivist cultures place a greater value on behaviour determined by group needs
- They may find determinism less of a depressing prospect as a result
48
Holism
- This gestalt view is the basis of holism - any attempt to break up behaviour and experience is inappropriate
- Parts of any whole cannot exist and cannot be understood except in their relation to the whole
- This view is shared by the humanistic perspective
49
Reductionism
- Reductionism analyses behaviour by breaking it down into its constituent parts
- Based on the scientific principle of parsimony - all phenomena should be explained using the most basic principles
- Explaining behaviour in a simple way in terms of basic units
50
Levels of explanation
- Social and cultural explanations (the influence of social groups and behaviour) - least reductionist
- Psychological explanations (Cognitive, behavioural/environmental)
- Biological explanations (Neurochemical, genetic, brain structure etc.) - most reductionist
The reductionist approach suggests that explanations begin at the highest level and progressively look at component elements
51
Levels of explanation - Relationships examples
- Social and cultural explanations - Arranged marriages - Collectivist vs individualist
- Psychological explanations - Social exchange theory
- Biological explanations - Evolutionary explanations
52
Types of reductionism
- Biological reductionism
- Environmental reductionism
53
Strengths of reductionism
- It is possible to break behaviour into its constituent parts and scientifically test them so this means that the cause of behaviours can be established more easily
- Recognises the importance of biological explanations in human behaviour which is a positive as there is a lot of evidence for the influence of biology on behaviour
54
Limitations of reductionism
- May oversimplify behaviour so therefore other factors are not considered that could influence behaviour
- Many different theories of the cognitive functioning such as memory, perception and language have been created in psychology but little attempt has been made to combine the theories together this is an issue as behaviour is often a result of a combinations of things
55
Strengths of holism
- Provides a more complete understanding of behaviour. This is beneficial because it is a bit more reflective of how humans behave
- Reminds us that the whole is not just the sum of the parts so it explains how the combination of factors together causes behaviour
56
Limitations of holism
- Cannot be rigorously tested which means that theories cannot be studied and there is a lack of evidence to support holism
- It is difficult to establish how much each individual factor contributes to any particular behaviour so this means explanations are unsatisfactory
57
Idiographic approach
- Understanding behaviour through studying individual cases
- People are studied as unique entities, each with their own subjective experiences
- There may be no attempt to compare these to a larger group
- This approach is generally associated with methods that produce qualitative data
58
Aim of the idiographic approach
To describe the richness of human experience
59
Nomothetic approach
- Closely aligned with methods that are regarded as scientific (experiments)
- They involve large numbers of people in order to establish ways people are similar
60
Aim of the nomothetic approach
To produce general laws of human behaviour. These provide a benchmark against which people can be classified, compared and measured
61
Strengths of the idiographic approach
- Gain detailed and informative descriptions of behaviour
- Can uncover causes for behaviour not identified using nomothetic methods e.g. Clive Wearing case study showed us that there is more than one long term memory
- Develop a holistic understanding of individual
- Can provide hypotheses for future scientific study
62
Limitations of the idiographic approach
- Cannot generalise to a wider population
- Methods are subjective, flexible and unstandardised so replication, prediction and control of behaviour is difficult. The approach is unscientific which contrasts the fact that psychology aims to to be scientific
63
Strengths of the nomothetic approach
- Can generalise to a wider population
- Methods are objective, measurable and can be verified so replication, prediction and control of behaviour is easy
64
Weaknesses of the nomothetic approach
- Generalised laws and principles may not apply to an individual e.g. learning theory of phobias may not apply to someone who has a snake phobia but has never had an encounter with a snake
- Understanding is often superficial e.g. same score on a personality test, but different answers
65
Social sensitivity in psychological research
Studies where there are potential impacts on the participant or consequences for the people represented in the research
E.g. Milgram’s obedience study had serious effects on the participants
66
Sieber and Stanley
- Identified 4 areas researchers need to be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research
- Implications - You should consider the wider effects. Will research give scientific weight to stereotypes? Can you predict this at the outset?
- Uses/public policy - What do you think the research is likely to be used for? What would happen if your research was used for the wrong person?
Validity of the research - Be up front about your own biases/preconceptions. Never say your findings are objective. You must be reflective and comment in the limitations of your research
Wording of the question - Think carefully about how to word your research question. For example, are there racial differences in IQ? Could be better worded as How do different cultures learn?
67
Evaluation of socially sensitive research (marginalised groups)
- Socially sensitive research may have harmful consequences for marginalised groups in society
- Many groups in society are either excluded or misrepresented in psychological research e.g. people with Lombroso’s research on criminal types was biased against ethnic minorities
- This creates an additional ethical issue - these people may miss out on the potential benefits of the research
- This is important as it could be argued that in order to fully understand human behaviour, we need to consider all groups within society
68
Evaluation of socially sensitive research (responsibility of psychologists)
- Sieber and Stanley argue that it is the responsibility of psychologists to deliberately cover such issues
- Well conducted research into socially sensitive areas can lead to changes in policies and society for the better
- This encourages psychologists to take responsibility for their findings
69
Evaluating socially sensitive research (impossible)
- Issues of social sensitivity can be hard to predict
- Some results may be unexpected (e.g. Milgram) so it’s hard to anticipate the implications arising from them
- Also, socially sensitive research may change over time, so previous research could become more controversial and sensitive over time
- Blaming the mother for mental illnesses in their children was considered normal and was standard in the 1950s
70
An example of socially sensitive research
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis
- Maternity leave
- Highlights importance of maternal bonding
- Diminishes the role of the father
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72
Nature
- Nature is due to the genetics, biology and innate characteristics with which a person was born.
- Nativists argue that behaviour is innate i.e. the result of heredity, as measured by the concordance rate
73
Nurture
- It examines how the environment and learning influences a person.
- Empiricists have claimed that behaviour is the result of our environment as children are like a ‘blank slate’ (John Locke)
- The environment refers to many things e.g. the mother’s psychological sate during pregnancy to the social conditions we grow up in
74
Gottesman (1963) Genetics and the environment
Gottesman (1963) discusses the reaction range of some characteristics, such as IQ. It depends on the environment whether the genotypic potential is fully reached. Someone may be genetically disposed to being clever, but if they get no education, they will still have a low IQ.
75
An example of interactionism
The diathesis stress model
76
Nature AND Nurture
- Overall, the nature-nurture nowadays does not focus on the divisiveness of the issue.
- Psychologists are not trying to categorise behaviour as being all due to nature or all due to nurture.
- Rather, psychologists research the relative extent to which genetics and the environment impact on behaviour.
- For example, people can have a genetic predisposition for depression. But triggering environmental effects may cause a person to develop it (like a death of a loved one).
77
Interactionist approach
Nature and nurture interaction; nature may even create nurture e.g. a child’s temperament (perhaps high levels of aggression) can influence their parents’ response which then affects a child’s behaviour (Plomin 1977)
78
Methods of studying nature-nurture influences
Family studies
Adoption studies
Twin studies
79
Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate (psychodynamics)
- Psychodynamics is a clear example of interactionism.
- Freud argued that children undergo psychosexual developmental stages at specific ages, which are biologically driven, an innate process.
- However, Freud emphasised the interaction of these innate stages with the child's unique life experiences during each stage.
- This combination of inherent developmental processes and individual environmental experience shapes the adult personality and anxieties.
80
Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate (concordance rates)
- Researchers examine the concordance rates of mental health conditions in identical (monozygotic) twins, who share 100% of their DNA, and fraternal (dizygotic) twins, who share 50% of their genes. Concordance in this context refers to the likelihood of one twin having a condition if the other twin has it.
- For conditions like OCD and Schizophrenia, concordance rates are higher in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins, suggesting a genetic influence. However, the absence of 100% concordance, which would be expected if these conditions were purely genetic, implies that both genetic and environmental factors play a role
81
Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate (treatment development)
Taking a dichotomous view of behaviour as solely innate or environmental can benefit treatment development.
- For instance, assuming OCD is entirely due to genetic factors affecting serotonin transport led to the creation of SSRIs as a treatment.
- However, the most effective treatment for OCD often combines SSRIs with Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CT), indicating the advantages of an interactional treatment approach that considers both nature and nurture.
82
Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate (Implications)
- Accepting behaviour as primarily influenced by nature or nurture has significant implications, particularly in mental illness and legal contexts.
- Viewing mental illness as being due to environmental factors empowers sufferers to actively modify their thought processes, as opposed to a more passive role suggested by a purely biological explanation.
- In the legal system, it has been argued that if aggressive behaviour is mainly biologically driven by genetics, it could lead to reduced sentences for individuals with certain genetic markers, under the argument that they are not responsible for their inherited aggressive tendencies
83
Evaluation of the nature-nurture debate (Epigenetic modification)
- Nature and nurture interact through epigenetic modification.
- DNA has chemical marks that influence how the DNA is expressed, so certain genes can be switched on or switched off; this collection of chemical marks is our epigenome.
- Environmental experiences can alter the epigenome, especially in children; positive life experiences like supportive relationships and a stimulating environment and negative experiences like exposure to toxins or stress can alter how genes are expressed in brain cells, either negatively or positively influencing behaviour in later life affecting mental
84
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How to deal with socially sensitive research
- Follow the BPS ethical guidelines
- Refer research to an ethics committee (use of cost-benefit analysis)
- Consider how the research could be misused
- Be careful with how you word the research question e.g. ‘Which ethnic groups are more likely to carry knives?’ Is a bad use of words whereas a better way to phrase the question would be ‘What factors motivate knife carrying?’
86
DRIPP
Deception
Right to withdraw
Informed consent
Protection from harm
Privacy/confidentiality
87
GRENADE
Gender bias
Reductionism
Ethnocentrism/culture bias
Nature/nurture
Approaches - idiographic/nomothetic
Determinism
Ethical
