Psychopathology Flashcards
How many Definitions of Abnormality are there?
4
What are ‘norms’?
Unwritten rules or expectations in society
What is an Individualist Culture?
A culture that values individual needs and achievements
What is a Collectivist Culture?
A culture that values family and togetherness
What is ‘Abnormal’?
Someone who does not adhere to what society deems to be acceptable within the community
What are the 4 Definitions of Abnormality?
Statistical Infrequency
Failure to Function Adequately
Deviation from Social Norms
Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
What is Statistical Infrequency?
Any behaviour that is statistically rare - classified by being more than 2 standard deviations away from the norm
What is Statistical Infrequency as a Definition of Abnormality?
When someone displays statistically rare behaviour or characteristics, they can be defined as abnormal
What is an example of Statistical Infrequency?
IQ and Intellectual Disability Disorder (Mental Retardation)
- IQ has normal distribution and an average of 100
- Most people have an IQ between 85 and 115
- 2% of people have an IQ below 70
- These people are statistically rare, so are classed as abnormal
People with IQ above 115 can also be statistically rare, so classed as abnormal
Evaluate Statistical Infrequency as a Definition of Abnormality
Good - Real World Application
- Can be used as a diagnostics tool
- It is objective and scientific
- It is appropriate for many mental illnesses
Bad - Not all abnormal behaviour is infrequent
- Depression is experienced by 10% of the population
- This means it is not technically statistically infrequent
- The behaviour is still abnormal
Bad - Not all infrequent behaviour is abnormal
- High IQ might be statistically rare
- It also might be desirable
- Therefore, it might be classed as abnormal although it is a positive trait
What is Deviation from Social Norms?
Behaviour varying from what is seen as acceptable behaviour within a society
Social norms vary depending on culture and generation
Social norms separate socially desirable and undesirable behaviours
What is Deviation from Social Norms as a Definition of Abnormality?
Someone who varies from what is seen as acceptable behaviour within a society is classed as abnormal
What is an example of Deviation from Social Norms?
OCD
- Someone with OCD may have an obsession with germs
- They might wash their hands hundreds of times, when the social norm is to wash them once
- This action means they cannot live a normal life or fit in with societal explanations, so they would be labelled as abnormal
Evaluate Deviation from Social Norms as a Definition of Abnormality
Bad - Social norms change depending on culture
- Social norms in individualist cultures might be different to those in collectivist cultures
- If we try and apply one set of norms everywhere so we can diagnose people as abnormal, there will be culture bias and imposed etics
- This suggests there is an element of situational relativism to this definition
Bad - Norms change over time and could lack temporal validity
- We cannot truly define anything as abnormal when current beliefs about what constitutes as abnormal may change
- Views on being gay have changed over time, and so who says what is abnormal now and whether it may stay abnormal over time?
Bad - Many individuals who break social norms are not seen as abnormal
- For example, people who cross-dress regularly break social norms, but they are seen as eccentric and cool, and they are popular rather than being seen as mentally ill
Good - Considers the social dimensions of a behaviour
- We understand that a behaviour might be normal in one situation but not in another
What is Failure to Function Adequately?
When someone’s behaviour suggests they cannot cope with everyday life
Who are the researchers in Definitions of Abnormality?
Rosenhan and Seligman
Jahoda
What is Failure to Function Adequately as a Definition of Abnormality?
When someone’s behaviour suggests they cannot cope with everyday life, they are seen to be abnormal
They might be unable to maintain basic standards of nutrition, hygiene, a job or a relationship
Rosenhan and Seligman suggested there are signs to say when someone is not coping, and that the more of these someone shows, the more abnormal they are
What did Rosenhan and Seligman do?
They created a list of signs someone is failing to function adequately
What are Rosenhan and Seligman’s signs of Failure to Function Adequately?
Failure to conform to interpersonal rules (can’t maintain personal space)
Causes observer discomfort
Experiencing personal distress
Irrational or dangerous behaviours to themselves and others
What is an example of Failure to Function Adequately?
Depression
- They might not do things they used to before (work, get out of bed, shower)
- Their interference with functioning might lead to personal distress
- They might cause observer discomfort due to worrying their friends and family
Evaluate Failure to Function Adequately as a Definition of Abnormality
Good - Takes the patient’s experience into account and can be used for diagnosis
- It allows the assessment to be made from the patient’s point of view
- They are objectively judged through a criteria
- Priorities can be made from the number of symptoms to decide treatment
Bad - Abnormal behaviour is not always linked to dysfunction
- Harold Shipman
- He murdered 215 people but maintained a prestigious image as a Doctor
- He maintained his relationships and work showing no failure to function adequately
- Suggests there may be other factors
Bad - Dysfunction may not always be abnormal
- If someone is grieving or stressed they might display some of Rosenhan and Seligman’s signs
- They might not be abnormal, suggesting that there may be other factors that determine whether or not someone is abnormal
What is Deviation from Ideal Mental Health?
Different mental health from mental health that is considered to be normal within a society.
What is Deviation from Ideal Mental Health as a Definition of Abnormality?
It suggests that any deviation from normal mental health is abnormal. It uses Jahoda’s criteria for Ideal Mental Health to determine whether or not someones mental health is abnormal
Who is the researcher for Deviation from Ideal Mental Health?
Jahoda
What did Jahoda do?
Created a criteria for Ideal Mental Health, so we can identify deviations
What does Jahoda’s Criteria for Ideal Mental Health include?
We…
- Have no symptoms or distress
- Are rational and perceive ourselves accurately
- Self-actualise (can reach our full potential)
- Can cope with stress
- Have a realistic view of the world
- Have good self-esteem and lack guilt
- Are independent of others
- Can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure
What is an example of Deviation from Ideal Mental Health?
Depression
- They have irrational self-perception
- They can not cope with stress
- They have an unrealistic view of the world
- They experience symptoms such as distress
Therefore they deviate from Ideal Mental Health
Evaluate Deviation from Ideal Mental Health as a Definition of Abnormality
Good - Takes a positive approach to mental problems
- It focuses on what is desirable rather than what is undesirable
Good - Standardised and comprehensive
- Jahoda’s criteria covers most reasons we seek help
- It is a standardised list, meaning it can be used by everyone
Bad - Demanding
- The criteria are too demanding
- Most people do not meet all ideals everyday, so we should all be classified as abnormal
What approach is Phobias?
Behavioural
What are Phobias?
Excessive fear and anxiety that is triggered by an object, place or situation.
The extent of the fear is out of proportion to any real danger presented by the phobic stimulus.
What are 3 types of Phobias? (*)
Specific Phobias - phobias of an object or situation
Social Phobias - phobias of a social situation
Agoraphobia - phobia of being outside or in a public place
What are the 3 types of characteristics of phobias, depression and OCD?
Behavioural
Emotional
Cognitive
What are 2 Behavioural Characteristics of Phobias?
Panic
Avoidance
What does the Behavioural Characteristic of Phobias ‘Panic’ include?
Physical reactions such as screaming, running away or freezing
What does the Behavioural Characteristic of Phobias ‘Avoidance’ include?
Deliberately going out of their way to prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus
This can interfere with their daily life
What are 2 Emotional Characteristics of Phobias?
Anxiety and Fear
Unreasonable Emotional Response
What does the Emotional Characteristic of Phobias ‘Anxiety and Fear’ include?
They will experience an unpleasant state of high arousal that prevents them from relaxing or experiencing positive emotions, and an immediate unpleasant response when thinking about the phobic stimulus.
What does the Emotional Characteristic of Phobias ‘Unreasonable Emotional Response’ include?
Their emotional responses are wildly disproportionate to the danger posed by the phobic stimulus
What are 2 Cognitive Characteristics of Phobias?
Selective Attention
Irrational Beliefs
What does the Cognitive Characteristic of Phobias ‘Selective Attention’ include?
People will struggle to focus on anything else when the phobic stimulus is in sight
What does the Cognitive Characteristic of Phobias ‘Irrational Beliefs’ include?
People have beliefs about the stimulus that are not in keeping with reality
What are all the Characteristics of Phobias?
Behavioural:
- Panic
- Avoidance
Emotional:
- Anxiety and Fear
- Unreasonable Emotional Response
Cognitive:
- Irrational Beliefs
- Selective Attention
What is the Behavioural Approach to Explaining Phobias?
The 2 Process Model
What is the 2 Process Model?
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias
It suggests we learn Phobias through Classical Conditioning and maintain them through Operant Conditioning
What is the first process in the 2 process model?
What does it include/how does it work?
1) Acquiring Phobias
Classical Conditioning
It suggests we learn through association through classical conditioning
Mapping:
Phobic Stimulus = Neutral Stimulus –> No Response
Experience leading to Unconditional Response of Fear = Unconditional Stimulus
UCS –> UCR Fear
UCS + NS –> UCR of Fear
NS becomes a Conditioned Stimulus with a Conditioned Response of Fear
What case study can be used to support the 2 process model?
Little Albert
- Watson and Rayner
- Acquired a phobia of fur through association of animals and loud noises:
White Rat (NS) –> NR
Loud Noise (UCS) –> UCR of Fear
White Rat (NS) + Loud Noise (UCS) –> UCR of Fear
White Rat (CS) –> CR of Fear
They found his phobia then generalised to all furry objects
What is the second process in the 2 Process Model?
What does it include/how does it work?
2) Maintenance
Operant Conditioning (Negative Reinforcement)
Negative Reinforcement is used to maintain a phobia:
- a person avoids their phobic stimulus (avoidance behavioural characteristic)
- this will relieve their unpleasant anxiety
- the temporary removal of anxiety makes them likely to repeat the avoidance behaviour
- this means they will reinforce and maintain their phobia
What are the 2 processes in the 2 process model?
1) Acquisition through Classical Conditioning
2) Maintenance through Operant Conditioning (Negative Reinforcement)
Evaluate Explanations of Phobias
Good - Real World Application
- Knowing how association and negative reinforcement works in phobias helps us to tailor treatments to try and undo or combat their associations
Bad - Not all Bad Experiences lead to phobias
- Some people might not form phobias through a bad experience
- For example, someone might be badly injured competing in a sport but will return to that sport after their injury with no phobias
- This questions the validity of this explanation and suggests personality also factors in to the acquisition of Phobias
Bad - Not all Phobias are from Bad Experiences
- Some phobias are of things we have never experienced
- e.g. death, sharks, or snakes when you do not live near any snakes or sharks
Strength - Research Support
- Little Albert
- He demonstrated how frightening experiences can lead to the acquisition of Phobias
- This gives the 2 process model validity as it has been demonstrated in the real world
What are the Behavioural Approaches to Treating Phobias?
Flooding
Systematic Desensitisation
How many Behavioural Approaches are there to Treating Phobias?
2
What are the aims of the Behavioural treatments of Phobias?
They aim to counter-condition the phobia by associating the phobic stimulus with relaxation instead of fear
They also prevent the person from avoiding their phobic stimulus to prevent any more maintenance or reinforcement
What happens in Systematic Desensitisation?
There are 3 processes:
1) Anxiety Hierarchy
- the patient and therapist create a list of situations related to the phobic stimulus that would provoke anxiety
- they place them in order from least to most frightening
2) Relaxation Techniques
- the therapist teaches the client relaxation techniques so they can relax deeply and quickly to prevent fear
- these could include meditation, breathing exercises or even drugs such as Valium
3) Exposure
- the patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus while practicing the relaxation techniques
- they start from the bottom of the hierarchy and work their way up over several sessions until they can stay relaxed in situations high on the anxiety hierarchy
What are the 3 processes in Systematic Desensitisation?
1) Anxiety Hierarchy
2) Relaxation Techniques
3) Exposure
Evaluate Systematic Desensitisation as a Behavioural Approach to Treating Phobias
Good - Real World Application
- it has been proven effective in phobias where the phobic stimulus can be identified
- it is also versatile and suitable for different patients, such as those with learning difficulties
- the patients are in control and it is not complex
Good - Acceptable to patients
- the patients are likely to complete the treatment due to it being manageable and them being in control
- suggests it has good real world application (external validity)
Bad - Not cost effective
- the patients only move on when they are ready
- they can move back down again if they start to feel uncomfortable
- this could mean it takes a long time for each patient to complete their treatment, meaning there could be negative implications for the economy:
taking time off work (bad for company)
paying for the treatment (taxes)
long waiting list
- this potentially means it uses too many resources
Bad - Less suitable for Social Phobias
- it is difficult to complete with phobias that have never been experienced (death, shark bites), or with social phobias such as agoraphobia
What happens in Flooding?
The patient experiences immediate exposure to the phobic stimulus with no gradual build up
The senses are flooded with thoughts, images and experiences of the phobic stimulus, making it a very frightening and unavoidable situation
It stops phobic responses quickly as there is no option for avoidance behaviour
What is the key process in Flooding?
Extinction
What is Extinction in treatments of Phobias?
Learning that the stimulus is harmless as the phobic stimulus is encountered without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. a dog is experienced without being bitten)
This then means the conditioned stimulus no longer produces the conditioned response of fear
Evaluate Flooding as a Behavioural Approach to Treating Phobias
Good - Cost Effective
- it has quick effects of extinguishing
- because it is quick it takes less time and money
Bad - Can be Traumatic for Patients
- flooding produces high levels of fear with no escape
- patients might not realise how much of the phobic stimulus will surround them, and it might worsen their phobias before it can solve it
- this matters because it might not be a successful treatment every time
Bad - High levels of Attrition
- due to it being a frightening experience, there is likely a high level of dropout
- less people will finish their treatment
- this matters because it could mean it is not as successful as Systematic Desensitisation, and there may still be implications for the economy if less people are treated but they are still taking up therapists’ time
What Approach is used for Depression?
The Cognitive Approach
