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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

‘Being normal’.

A

What society deems acceptable, meeting human expectations and behaving like the majority. Seen as desirable.

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2
Q

‘Abnormality’.

A

What society deems unacceptable, uncommon behaviour, potentially harmful and undesireable.

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3
Q

Statistical infrequency.

A

Any behaviour that is rare is seen as abnormal.

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4
Q

Example for statistical infrequency.

A

Schizophrenia - 1.5% prevalence rate.

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5
Q

Strengths of statistical infrequency.

A

Real world applications (assessing and diagnosing individuals),

highly logical and objective, no bias.

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6
Q

Limitations of statistical infrequency.

A

Rare characteristics can also be desirable (IQ),

mental illness is quite common, 1 in 4, but is also abnormal and undesirable.

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7
Q

Deviation from social norms.

A

People whose behaviour breaks the rules of society are seen as abnormal.

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8
Q

Explicit norms.

A

The law.

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9
Q

Implicit laws.

A

Rules made by society.

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10
Q

Example of deviation from social norms.

A

Antisocial personality disorder.

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11
Q

Strengths of deviation from social norms.

A

Flexible, depending on situation and age,

helps society stay orderly and predictable.

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12
Q

Limitations for deviation from social norms.

A

Explicit and implicit norms change over time,

cultural differences- means it is not always clear what is abnormal.

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13
Q

Failure to function adequately.

A

Behaviour that prevents a person from coping with day to day demands is seen as abnormal.

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14
Q

Measuring failure to function adequately.

A

Global Assessment Functioning Scale (GAF), measures how well individuals function everyday based on certain criteria.

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15
Q

Strengths of failure to function adequately.

A

Acknowledges feelings, looking at functioning from their own perspective.

Can be measured using GAF, or others observing behaviour provides practical applications allowing people to get help.

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16
Q

Limitations of failure to function adequately.

A

Everyone might fail to function at some point,

not everyone with mental illness fails to function adequately.

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17
Q

Deviation from ideal mental health.

A

Any individual who does not meet the criteria of being ‘normal’ is seen as abnormal.

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18
Q

Criteria for deviation from ideal mental health.

A

Psychologist Maria Jahonda said ideal mental health consists of having: positive attitude, resist stress, accurate perception of reality and ability to adapt.

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19
Q

Strengths for deviation from ideal mental health.

A

Allows people who are suffering to have targeted intervention,

Focuses on what helpful for the individual - more positive. Allows clear goals to be set for an individual to achieve and according to Jahonda, achieve normality.

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20
Q

Limitations for deviation from ideal mental health.

A

Jahonda’s criteria is practically impossible to achieve,

subjective and difficult to measure,

lacks population validity (not applying to everyone), culture bound.

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21
Q

Phobias.

A

Behavioural, emotional and cognitive responses to a phobic stimulus.

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22
Q

Characteristics of phobias.

A

Behavioural - panic, avoidance and endurance.
Emotional - anxiety, fight or flight, going to extreme lengths to avoid phobic stimulus.
Cognitive - selective attention to phobic stimulus, irrational beliefs, cognitive distortions, poor concentration.

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23
Q

Two process model - behaviourist approach.

A

Way of explaining phobias.States phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning. We acquire the phobia through association, an unpleasant experience with the situation and associate it with fear.

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24
Q

Phobic responses acquired by classical conditioning: Little Albert Study (Watson and Rayner).

A

Baby Albert was presented with a white rat and showed no fear. Albert was then presented with the white rat again alongside a loud bang and Albert started to cry. Albert was shown the rat a third time and feared the rat. Albert then feared things similar to the rat: a fur coat and cotton wool. This shows that fears are acquired through classical conditioning.

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25
Q

Phobic response acquired by by operant conditioning.

A

An individual avoids the situation, which results in desirable consequences, therefore the behaviour is repeated. This reinforces avoidance behaviour and maintains the phobia.

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26
Q

Strengths of two process model.

A

Supporting evidence (LAS), validity, 73% of people with fear of dentist had a traumatic experience.

practical applications (therapy).

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27
Q

Limitations of two process model.

A

Mainly focuses on behavioural characteristics, incomplete explanation,

reductionist- saying complex disorders are caused by experience of association, punishment and rewards, deterministic.

28
Q

Systematic desensitisation.

A

Learning a new stimulus-response association that runs counter to the original association. Moving from responding with fear to responding with relaxation.

29
Q

Processes of systematic desensitisation.

A

Anxiety hierarchy - arrange situations relating to the phobic stimulus from least to most frightening, Relaxation and reciprocal inhibition- impossible to be anxious and relaxed at the same time. Exposure- working up the hierarchy using the relaxation techniques, goal is to real the top and stay calm.

30
Q

In vivo.

A

Working up the anxiety hierarchy with actual exposure.

31
Q

In vitro.

A

Working up the anxiety hierarchy by imagining the exposure.

32
Q

Strengths for systematic desensitisation.

A

Effective and positive results (75% of people with phobias respond well to SD.),

more accessible - suitable for those with learning disabilities, does not require high cognitive load so patients are less likely to become confused, works fast.

33
Q

Limitations for systematic desensitisation.

A

, in vitro is less effective than dealing with real stimulus.

not effective for all phobias (phobias with biological evolutionary explanations, seem to benefit survival in some way.) phobias that have not developed through personal experience, such as fear of heights. Have not been learn so cannot be unlearnt.

treats the symptoms of phobias not the cause - could leave the patient vulnerable to developing new phobia as the reason behind it has not been dealt with.

34
Q

Flooding.

A

Exposing people with a phobia to their phobic stimulus but without gradual build up. Immediate exposure.

35
Q

Example of flooding.

A

Large spider crawling over someone with arachnophobia for an extended period of time.

36
Q

Extinction.

A

Stopping the phobic response very quickly, without the option of avoidance behaviour. Learned response is extinguished when the conditioned stimulus (dog) is encountered with the unconditioned stimulus (being bitten) the result is that the conditioned stimulus no longer produces a conditioned response (fear).

37
Q

Strengths of flooding.

A

Highly effective for simple phobias, which are specific.

cost effective and fast, people are treated quickly so it requires less sessions and therefore less money spent. 90% reduction in anxiety after 1 session.
partially ethical.

38
Q

Limitations of flooding.

A

Traumatic,
less effective for complex phobias (agoraphobia). CBT may be more useful as it challenges irrational thinking.

less ethical than SD, doesn’t combat underlying cause.

39
Q

Behavioural characteristics of depression.

A

Reduced energy levels (lethargic), psychomotor agitation (pacing, fidgeting, talking quickly), disrupted sleep and eating behaviour (insomnia or hyposomnia), irritable.

40
Q

Emotional characteristics of depression.

A

Persistent low mood, more negative emotions than positive, anger towards them self, reduced self esteem.

41
Q

Cognitive characteristics of depression.

A

Poor concentration, pay more attention to the negatives, absolutist thinking (‘I will never succeed’ ‘I am a failure’).

42
Q

Beck’s negative triad - cognitive approach.

A

Aaron Beck said some people are more vulnerable to depression because they have cognitive vulnerability. This makes them interpret experiences in a negative way. They have faulty information processing, negative self schema, the negative triad.

43
Q

Faulty information processing.

A

encoding of sensory information → information manipulation → output (behaviour). Something goes ‘wrong’ in the processing step so there is also a faulty output.

44
Q

Negative self schema.

A

Interpreting information in a negative way.

45
Q

The negative triad.

A
  1. The self- “I’m worthless”
  2. The world- “no one loves me”
  3. The future- “things will always be this way”
46
Q

Strengths of the negative triad.

A

Good evidence, assessed 65 women on their cognitive vulnerability, found those to be more vulnerable were more likely to suffer with postnatal depression

practical applications (CBT).

Personal life events are accounted for and recognised, so it is understood there could be different causes for depression.

47
Q

Limitations of the negative triad.

A

Does not explain all aspects of depression. Patients often experience multiple emotions.
Becks theory does not take into account the extreme emotions (hallucinations) - does not explain all symptoms, so cannot fully explain cause.

48
Q

Ellis’s ABC model - cognitive approach.

A

Good mental health is the result of rational thinking. Depression is the result of irrational thinking.
A- activating event, experiencing negative events can trigger irrational beliefs.
B- beliefs, ‘utopianism’- life is meant to be fair.
C- consequences, activating event triggers irrational beliefs and result in behavioural and emotional consequences.

49
Q

Strengths of Ellis’s ABC model.

A

Practical applications (REBT which is a form of CBT). 90% success rate in 27 sessions.

50
Q

Limitations of Ellis’s ABC model.

A

Only explains reactive (triggered by life events) not biological depression, doesn’t explain origins of irrational thoughts. Not useful because many cases of depression have a biological cause.

potential issues with ethics - seen to blame the patient.

May not be this complicated

51
Q

Cognitive behaviour treatment (CBT).

A

Therapy for depression.
Cognitive element- identification of negative thoughts.
Behavioural element- actions put into place to promote positive behaviours.

52
Q

Becks cognitive therapy.

A

Dysfunctional thought diary, client has revealed more about their though patterns then they can work on changing them. This is cognitive restructuring.
Pleasant activity scheduling - planning one positive activity everyday which is something that gives a sense of accomplishment or something that breaks someone away from routine.
If it doesn’t go to plan clients can reflect on why and how it can be improved.

53
Q

Ellis’ REBT therapy.

A

Another from of CBT which extends the ABC model.
A- activating event
B- beliefs
C- consequences
D- disputing irrational beliefs
E- effective new beliefs.
Logical disputing- ‘does it make sense?’
Empirical disputing- ‘where is the evidence?’
Pragmatic disputing- ‘how is that going to help?’
Replacing irrational beliefs with rational

54
Q

Strengths of CBT

A

Useful, effective - combination of CBT and drugs in treating 327 teenagers with depression. 36 weeks = 86% for both, CBT and antidepressants alone were both 81% who had significantly improved. 42% relapse, not effective long term.

focusing on the individual.

55
Q

Limitations of CBT

A

Other more effective psychological therapies. Evidence for CBT mainly comes from trials of highly selected patients with only depression and no additional symptoms. Patients with severe depression struggle to attend sessions and concentrate.

Patient thinking it is their fault that they have depression because it provides a simple solution to a complex situation.

56
Q

Behavioural characteristics of OCD.

A

Repetitive compulsions, repeating a task over and over.
Compulsions to reduce anxiety, completing a task multiple times a day to prevent bad things from happening.
Avoidance.

57
Q

Emotional characteristics of OCD.

A

Anxiety and distress.
Accompanying depression.
Guilt and disgust.

58
Q

Cognitive characteristics of OCD.

A

Obsessive thoughts, unpleasant thoughts that are recurring.
Cognitive coping strategies.
Insight to excessive anxiety, people with OCD are aware that their thoughts are not rational, hypervigilant- constant alertness.

59
Q

Genetic explanations for OCD - biological approach.

A

Mental illness is inherited.
Family/twin studies.

The more closely related you are to someone with OCD the greater the likelihood you will also have it.
Study found that in OCD patients 37% had a parent with OCD and 21% had a sibling with it. Shows that genes do play a role but it is not the only factor involved.

Genes that are involved with OCD are: SERT gene (5HT1-D beta gene)- affects transport of serotonin, low levels of serotonin is associated with OCD.
COMT genes- higher levels of dopamine, which is more common with people with OCD.
OCD is polygenic (caused by multiple genes) and ateologically heterogenous (no two people with OCD will have the same genetic cause).

60
Q

Neural explanations for OCD - biological approach.

A

Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters - serotonin and dopamine.
Serotonin - differences in genes cause differences in neurotransmitter activity. Functioning in serotonin system is reduced.

Particular regions of the brain are associated with OCD: parahippocampus gyrus- processing unpleasant events, lateral frontal lobes- logical thinking and rational decision making.
Cognitive neuroscience shows that people with OCD have structural differences in these areas of the brain.

61
Q

Strengths of biological explanations of OCD

A

(Genetics) Support - Lewis study. Twin study into OCD - 68% of identical twins will both have OCD and 31% of non identical twins experience it, suggesting a very strong genetic component.

(Neural) Antidepressants work to treat OCD - increasing serotonin, shows support for neural explanation.

62
Q

Limitations of the biological explanation for OCD.

A

(Genetics) Reductionist - does not account for cognitions and learning. Ignores environmental factors, twins are used for genetic link but they also have the same environment, which may trigger OCD.

(Neural) difficult to establish cause and effect. Only correlations can be identified.

63
Q

OCD treatments.

A

Drug therapy - Increase or decrease levels of neurotransmitters in the brain to increase or decrease their activity.
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) Prozac- 20mg daily dose.
Impacts synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters return to the presynaptic neuron where they are reabsorbed, SSRI blocks the reabsorption of serotonin, this creates more serotonin in the synapse and the post-synaptic neuron continues to be stimulated. Used alongside CBT to help manage OCD in the long term, tackling faulty thoughts.

Alternative drugs - SNRIs (serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors). Increase serotonin and noradrenaline. Reducing anxiety symptoms.
Tricyclics - same as SSRIs but more severe side effects.

64
Q

Strengths of drug therapy.

A

Evidence for effectiveness - review of 17 studies comparing SRRIs to placebo, all studies showed significantly better outcomes in the SSRI condition. Typically symptoms reduced by 70%.

Cost effective and non disruptive to people lives - cheap compared to psychological treatments. Good value for NHS. Simply taking drugs until symptoms decline, unlike therapy where you must attend sessions.

65
Q

Limitations of drug therapy.

A

Side effects - small minority will experience long term effects including indigestion and blurred vision. Tricyclics - 1 in 10 experience weight gain, 1 in 100 become aggressive and experiment heart problems. Reduced quality of life and people may stop taking them altogether.

High relapse rates when people stop taking them - 45% relapsed within 12 weeks compared to only 12% who had CBT

Psychology (12 decks)

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