Issues and Debates Flashcards
Gender bias
Threatens psychology’s claim to universality (the idea that conclusions drawn from research can be applied to all)
Gender bias - research may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men and women.
Alpha bias
The assumption that there are real, enduring differences between men and women, but then having the tendency to over-exaggerate the differences.
Freuds theory of psychosexual development - viewed femininity as failed masculinity. Said we must not view the 2 sexes as completely equal, penis envy causes women to be morally inferior.
differences exist within some disorders due to gender stereotypes. One study gave psychiatrists written case studies. Histrionic personality disorder was correctly diagnosed 80% of the time when the patient was female, only 30% when patient was male. Could be because clinicians are more likely to interpret women’s behaviour as submissive and hysterical.
Men are more likely to be undiagnosed, but women are more likely to be misdiagnosed and given less support for their actual disorder.
Beta bias
Tendency to ignore/minimise the differences between the sexes and assume that the findings of studies of one sex will apply equally well to women.
One study pointed out that many studies have typically relied on male samples (Milgram, Zimbardo) because female behaviour fluctuates with hormone changes. These results may influence the classification systems and be inappropriately applied to women. This means that women are underrepresented in textbooks, so clinicians are less able to deal with female patients.
Research into fight or flight response tend to focus on men - females may react differently. One study found women were more likely to have a ‘tend and befriend’ response - nurturing their young and creating networks with other women which could be caused by oxytocin (shown in studies with rats).
Kohlberg’s theory is based on interviews with boys. Male morality might be different to female. One study suggested that women tend to be more focussed on relationships than justice when making a moral decision. Causes girls to be put into lower stage, making them appear less morally developed than boys.
Androcentrism
Most societies have been dominated by men, therefore, many psychological theories are characterised by gender bias, resulting from an androcentric (male-centred) perspective due to the society which the research is designed.
One study observed mothers playing with infants who were either presented as a boy or a girl. Mothers selected gender appropriate toys. Shows that parents reinforce gender stereotypes from a very early age. Also from the media - using vicarious reinforcement.
Another study asked mothers to predict how successful their babies would be at a crawling task. Lower expectations for girls.
Invisibility of women
Influential psychologists have historically been male.
American Psychological Association published a list of 100 most eminent psychologists of 20th century - only 6 female. Only more recently Ainsworth (1970), Loftus (1974)
Strange because most undergraduate psychology students are female.
One study argues that the problem lies with women’s own implicit stereotypes about gender, women also endorse male superiority.
Women are invisible throughout psychology, not just researchers. Also as participants and throughout the research process. Sampling bias from men (Asch, Milgram). Generating hypothesis - men promote stereotypical differences in hypotheses.
Bias in the research process.
Men propose hypotheses which promote stereotypical differences between men and women.
Lab experiments specifically disadvantage women - findings in a controlled environment tell us very little about experience of women outside these settings.
Biased sampling - Asch, Milgram.
Dealing with gender bias
Social constructionist approach aims to understand behaviour in terms of social processes.
May be real biologically based sex differences but socially determined stereotypes make a far greater contribution.
Alternative strategies - using alternative methods of inquiry: expanding boundaries of accepted scientific methodology to explore personal lives of women.
Looking at meaningful contexts - considering women in natural setting that they function.
Collecting diverse samples: varied class and ethnic groups.
Culture bias
Most psychological knowledge is based on Westernised, educated people from industrialised, rich democracies.
Of the studies in a British psychological textbook, 66% were American, 32% were European and 2% came from the rest of the world
Cultural bias occurs when people of one culture make assumptions about the behaviour of people from another culture based on their own cultural norms and practice.
Sub-cultures do not have a particular geographical identity but do have a common set of customs, beliefs etc.
different historical periods as different cultures.
The findings of earlier research may not generalise to modern times.
Asch conformity - 1950s America
Etics and emics
Etics - Universal behaviours shown in all cultures, regardless of location or time period
Emics - culturally specific behaviours.
Cross cultural studies
Quasi because the IV (culture) is a naturally occurring difference between people.
Strengths of cross cultural studies
Helps us consider if behaviour is nature of nurture.
Research into sex differences in mate selection in 36 countries, found that men prefer youth and attractiveness (fertility) and women prefer money and ambition. This was a universal finding.
Mead studies into cultural groups in Papua New Guinea, many tribes all with different gender roles.
Limitations of cross cultural studies.
Ethnocentrism (using our own cultural group as a basis for judgement about other groups.) shown in strange situation.
2 types: Alpha bias , Beta bias
Rural Russians disadvantages by test and were viewed as inferior when they didn’t perform as well as westerners.
Cultural relativism (all cultures are equally worthy of respect), can also result in bias (alpha and beta).
Alpha bias in culture bias
(over-emphasising differences between cultures, disadvantaging culture which is not yours)
One study investigating ‘primitive’ cultures and people - viewed the minds of black people as less developed and inferior.
Beta bias in culture bias
(real differences between cultures are minimised or ignored, disadvantaging some cultures)
Caused if tests/procedures that have been developed in the western world are assumed to have the same meaning in all cultures - imposed etic.
Difference vs bias
Important factual differences and cultural bias is not concerned with these differences.
Thematic analysing of 700 sympathy cards from USA and Germany - found a genuine difference - American = sweet, vague, German = more to the point.
Important to ensure that any differences found are real differences and not a result of culture bias.
Review of research into happiness found differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures, more people in individualistic reporting SWB (subjective well-being). Differences may be due to culture bias - collectivist cultures are equally happy but don’t express it in Western terms of happiness.
How to tackle culture bias
Research should be carried out by members of that culture (indigenous psychologies)
They will have a better insight into cultural norms.
Can remove language barrier.
Tweak things to make them more appropriate.
Shown in strange situation.
Very little psychological research in Africa - vast majority in South Africa (mainly white psychologists) White = less than 9% of SAs population - not representative of actual population.
Combat this with Afrocentrism (research in Africa must be African-centred, European values cannot be applied equally to non-Europeans.)
Free will vs determinism debate
Is our behaviour free will and a product of a set of internal and external influences that determine what we do?
Free will
Individuals are free to choose their own behaviour and it is not restricted by internal or external sources.
Humanistic approach argues that we are self determining and active agents that choose our own behaviour.
Determinism
Actions are totally determined by the internal and external sources. Some argue that a proper science of psychology is only possible with a deterministic approach - lab experiments to establish cause and effect relationship.
Soft determinism
Behaviour has a cause and may be predictable but there is also room for conscious control.
Cognitive approach, the cause of behaviour is the internal mental processes but we can choose how we interact with them, what we pay attention to.
Gender schema - a piece of information that holds opinions about what is appropriate for each gender, this is established through interactions with agents of socialisation. It gives up a framework of how to act. We can override schemas, therefore the cognitive approach is an example of soft determinism.
Hard determinism.
All human behaviour has an internal/external cause that can be identified (using lab experiments) Free will is an illusion.
Types of hard determinism - biological, environmental, psychic.
Biological determinism
Behaviour is caused by biological influences that we cannot control.
OCD - mental illness can be inherited as it is caused by faulty genes, the more closely related you are to someone with OCD, the greater likelihood you will also have it. SERT gene - affects transport of serotonin, polygenic, astrological heterozygous. Study into OCD patients - 37% had parent with OCD, 21% had sibling with it.
