Gender Flashcards
Sex
Biological status, either male or female which is determined by one pair of sex chromosomes (XX - female, XY - male)
These chromosomes then influence hormonal and anatomical differences.
Gender
Psychological status, either masculine or feminine, includes all attitudes, roles and behaviours associated with the gender. These are heavily influenced by social norms and cultural expectations.
Sex vs gender.
Sex is innate (nature)
Gender is at least partly due to environment (nurture)
Gender is a social construct, so is fluid and open to change.
Sex-role stereotypes.
Set of shared expectations that people within a society or a culture hold about what is acceptable or usual behaviour for men and women.
These are a type of schema which come from experience, such as family, friends or media.
Include male and female stereotypes.
Dangers of sex-role stereotypes.
low self-esteem, cause limitations for people, discrimination.
Androgyny
Someone who cannot clearly be identified as a man or a woman.
Refers to a personality type that is characterised by a balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes and behaviours.
Bem and androgyny.
Suggested that high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being, this could be because it allows people to be successful in all different areas in life.
However, some researchers argued that people who have a greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted because these traits are more valued in Western society.
Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
Bem (1974)
First systematic attempt to measure androgyny.
Presents 60 traits, 20 fem, 20 masc and 20 andr. (these were chosen by asking 50 male and 50 female judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how much they represented ‘maleness’ and femaleness’)
Developed objectively with no bias, so increased validity.
Used a rating scale, 1-7, 1 being never true.
Ordinal scale is subjective, quantitive data is easy to analyse, but lacks insight,
Masculinity and femininity is treated as 2 dimensions.
Strength of BSRI
Androgynous traits include - friendly, conscientious, happy. Shows that androgyny is good for mental health.
Follow up study, 561 makes and 356 females (from pilot sample) to recomplete BSRI and a month later, produced similar scores.
Evidence of external validity - consistency over time - due to test retest
Limitations of BSRI
developed over 50 years ago: lack temporal validity, lacks population validity, developed in America (ethnocentric)
However, it appears to be valid across culture, used in Japan and china with good reliability and validity, when a few items were removed to improve cultural fit. Other study in Brazil with 65+ participants showed BSRI appears to be valid.
People must rate themselves: social desirability bias, complex, can be difficult to rate yourself.
Chromosomes.
46 in humans, arranged in 23 pairs.
Ovum supplies X chromosome, sperm supplies X or Y, zygote formed.
Sex of a baby is determined an conception when the sperm and egg form a zygote.
Hormones.
Chemical substances secreted by glands and carried in bloodstream.
Prenatally, these act upon brain development causing development of the reproductive organs.
Testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin.
Testosterone.
Male hormone but is present in small quantities in women.
Associated with aggression and competitiveness.
When released in the womb this hormone causes the development of male sex organs.
Oestrogen
Female hormone that governs the development of secondary sexual characteristics and menstruation from adolescence onwards.
Can cause women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their mentrual cycle, referred to as PMT (pre-menstrual tension). PMS when symptoms become a diagnosable disorder.
PMS have been used as a defence in cases of shoplifting and even murder.
Oxytocin.
Women typically produce this in much larger amounts, particularly as a result of giving birth. Released in massive quantities during labour.
Stimulated lactation, reduces stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding.
Men have less, so fuelled stereotype that men are less interested in closeness in a relationship.
Evidence for biology.
Large body of research for hormones supporting their role in gender development - study found that females with CAH (causing high male hormones) were often describes as ‘tomboys’ by their family and exhibit high levels of aggression. Shows that hormones are involved in gender.
Evidence for chromosomes - David Reimer, penis cut off after botched circumcision and doctors advised his parents to raise him as a girl, but he associated himself with masculinity. Shows chromosomes can determine gender, despite environment he felt he was a girl.
HOWEVER - case study = unable to generalise.
Evidence against biology
Biologically reductionist - ignores other psychological explanations for gender development - cognitive (gender schema theory). Gender is more complex than biological influence alone.
Ignores role of social factors - one study found that gender roles around the world are a result of social norms, rather than biology. Individualistic cultures are more masculine and traditional traits are highly valued. Suggests social factors are more important.
Atypical sex chromosome patterns.
Klinefelter’s syndrome (biologically male, have an extra X chromosome) - 1/600, poor language skills and reading ability, do not respond well to stress.
Reduced body hair, gynaecomastia, rounding of body contours.
Turner’s syndrome (biologically female, absence of X chromosome) - 1/5000, higher than average reading ability, socially immature.
Do not have a menstrual cycle, appearance of prepubescent girl.
Strengths of research into atypical sex chromosomes.
Contribution to nature-nurture debate - by comparing people with the syndromes to see psychological and behavioural differences between the 2 groups (socially immature and do not respond well to stress). Differences have a biological basis, supporting nature approach.
Application to managing syndrome - earlier and more accurate diagnosis of the syndromes and application for treatments. Klinefelter’s = testosterone therapy (increase muscle strength, growth of body hair). Turner’s = growth hormones (given in childhood) or oestrogen replacement therapy (given at puberty to stimulate menstrual cycle). Study showed taht those who had been diagnosed with Klinefelter’s earlier had significant benefits in terms of managing their condition compare to those who were diagnosed in adulthood.
Limitation of research into atypical sex chromosomes.
Sampling issue - one study found that many people with Klinefelter’s do not experience significant cognitive or psychological problems.
In general only those with the most severe symptoms are identified. Suggests that the typical picture of people with these syndromes may be exaggerated, distorting the picture of ‘typical symptoms’.
Explanations for gender - psychodynamic theory.
Gender identity and role are acquired during the phallic stage.
UNCONSCIOUS
Boys enter the oedipus complex - the penis becomes the focus of pleasure and boy develops sexual feelings towards his mother. They see their father as a rival and experience castration anxiety if their father discovers the desire for his mother. To resolve the conflict, the boy gives up his love for his mother to identify with his father. They develop a strong identity with their father because fear of castration is strong. They adopt the ideas and beliefs of their father and develop a male identity, through identification they become more active and dominant.
Girls enter the electra complex - experience penis envy, they see their mother as a love rival between themselves and their father. They blame their mother for ‘castration’ and substitute penis envy for desire to have children, so identify with their mother. They develop a weaker identity than men because their fear is not as strong as the fear of castration. They adopt the attitudes and behaviours of their mother and develop a female identity, through identification they become quiet and submissive.
Strengths of psychodynamic approach in explaining gender
Supporting research - (Freud’s explanation means that normal development for boys, depends on being raised in a conventional nuclear family), one study rated the gender identity of 49 boys aged 3-11 based on interviews with families and themselves. Of those who were judged to be ‘gender disturbed’. 75% had neither a biological father or a substitute father living with them. Shows that being raised without a father may have a negative impact on gender identity.
HOWEVER, does not explain if the same results would occur for girls. Contradicting - 37 children growing up in non traditional families, in all cases but one children developed typical gender identities and role behaviours.
Limitations for the psychodynamic approach in explaining gender.
Case study - Little Hans (phobia of horses. Freud suggested that his unconscious mind was using the horse to symbolise his wish against his father which brought back his castration anxiety) his mother routinely threatened him with castration (not the typical family environment that the theory is based on) his fear can be explained by classical conditioning rather than envy towards his father.
Inadequate account of women’s gender - Freud himself admitted that women were a mystery. he wrote a more extensive explanation about the oedipus complex compared to the electra. Making theories about development of gender without actually understanding women and girls.
Cognitive explanations for gender
Kohlberg’s theory
Gender schema theory
Kohlberg’s theory - background
Influenced by Piaget - focussed on stages on intellectual development.
Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
Egocentricism - child’s tendency to only be able to see the world from their own point of view (decreases with age). 3 mountain task - only children at age 6-7 were able to understand that when the doll moves it would not have the same view of the mountain.
Development of conservation - ability to realise that quantity remains constant even when the appearance of objects change. Conservation task - young children are unable to understand that the juice remains the same amount when poured into a thinner cup as it looks like it has more,