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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

define psychopathology

A

the study of mental illness, mental distress and abnormal maladaptive behaviour

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2
Q

what are the four definitions of abnormality

A

deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately, deviation from ideal mental health, statistical infrequency

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3
Q

describe deviation from social norms

A

analyses social norms and those that deviate are abnormal, society collectively judges what’s normal, social norms vary across time and cultures

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4
Q
  • evaluation of deviation from social norms (peel 1)
A

p- susceptibility to abuse
ev- what is socially acceptable now may not have been years ago, eg. homosexuality was historically considered a disorder
ex- attitudes to abnormalities change and are subjective, too much reliance on this definition -> abuse of civil rights?, takes away individual’s right to be different
l- statistical deviation may be less susceptible to abuse, objective measure of abnormality, quantitative data rather than societal constructs

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5
Q
  • evaluation of deviation from social norms (peel 2)
A

p- context and degree
ev- eg. swimming costume on the beach but not in school, degree of severity also impacts whether behaviour is considered abnormal, eg. cleaning your house frequently is not abnormal but cleaning it multiple times every day would be
ex- behaviour may be considered appropriate in one context but abnormal in another, definition assumes that behaviour is either a social norm or not, can be both
l- deviation from social norms may only be abnormal based on appropriateness of behaviour in context, inability to read and judge appropriateness of behaviour may be better explained by dimh (ability to be rational)

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6
Q
  • evaluation of deviation from social norms (peel 3)
A

p- cultural relativism
ev- classification systems eg. dsm, based on social norms in western, white, middle-class cultures, criteria still applied to people that don’t fit this
ex- social norms and behaviours differ across cultures, not universal, ethnocentric/classist, limits usefulness
l- dsm was revised in 2013 to incorporate cultural relativism in many diagnoses

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7
Q

describe failure to function adequately

A

no longer able to function in everyday life, use of global assessment of functioning scale

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8
Q

name the criteria of failure to function

A

suffering, maladaptiveness, irrational, observer discomfort, vividness, violation of moral codes, unpredictability

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9
Q

describe maladaptiveness (failure to function adequately)

A

behaviour prevents the person reaching desired goals

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10
Q

describe suffering (failure to function adequately)

A

the patient themselves may suffer as a result of their condition or may inflict suffering on others

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11
Q

describe irrational (failure to function adequately)

A

behaviour seems to defy logical sense

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12
Q

describe observer discomfort (failure to function adequately)

A

behaviour makes those around feel uncomfortable

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13
Q

describe vividness (failure to function adequately)

A

others find the behaviour odd

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14
Q

describe violation of moral codes (failure to function adequately)

A

not behaving in accordance with societies norms

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15
Q

describe unpredictability (failure to function adequately)

A

behaviour is unexpected or unpredictable

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16
Q

evaluation of failure to function adequately (peel 1)

A

p- can lead to biased diagnosis
ev- someone experiencing personal distress eg. not eating regular meals, may think normal or think undesirable and seek help, tends to be others that judge behaviour due to feeling uncomfortable and finding it abnormal
ex- behaviour is subjective, criteria of ftfa to white, middle class person may be very different to different race or socioeconomic background, wrong diagnosis as opinion-based
l- dimh better explanation, focuses on the individual and their behaviour rather than others, less susceptible to bias in diagnosis

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17
Q

evaluation of failure to function adequately (peeleel)

A

p- behaviour could be functional
ev- some disorders eg depression may lead to extra attention for sufferer, attention is rewarding and therefore functional
ex- if criteria is decided by one person/group, decide on set of characteristics that are ‘functional’ that do not fit others’ experiences, what ‘functional’ is to someone with a mental disorder and someone without may be very different
l- subjective explanation, may not be generalisable to everyone, but ftfa is still objective
ev- list/count behaviours eg. can dress self, prepare meals
ex- predetermined set of criteria for assessment means observations of ftfa can be repeated and replicated with high reliability
l- observers may not observe behaviours and record them in the same way so definition’s method may lack interobserver reliability, for pure objectivity, statistical infrequency may be better, based on data rather than opinion or categories decided subjectively, definition would judge ‘functional’ based on commonality in population

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18
Q

describe statistical infrequency

A

uses statistical data based on normal distribution, anyone outside of norm is classed as abnormal, number of people in population with trait, if trait is common -> normal, if rare -> abnormal, majority have average score and represented at top of distribution

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19
Q

evaluation of statistical infrequency (peeleel)

A

p- judgements are objective and quantitative
ev- data is collected from sources such as tests or records and plotted on a graph, judgements can only be made objectively based on the numerical data provided
ex- avoids bias, data acts as evidence for judgements made, judgements not affected by opinion as objective based on the data displayed
l- does not account for individual difference
ev- IQ of under 70, SI suggests they are abnormal, still true if can function normally?
ex- not everyone who is statistically rare should be considered abnormal, may be classed as abnormal for one trait but may not affect their lives, definition cannot be generalised as people differ greatly
l- ftfa definition may be better as accounts for subjective experience, use of questionnaires

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20
Q

evaluation of statistical infrequency (peel)

A

p- does not account for desirability of behaviour
ev- people with an IQ of over 130 is statistically abnormal but is a desirable trait
ex- behaviours can be abnormal but desirable at the same time, without accounting for desirability cannot be used to make judgement about abnormality on its own
l- better explanation deviation from social norms, acknowledges desirable and undesirable behaviour

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21
Q

describe deviation from ideal mental health

A

considers what is normal before abnormal, Jahoda devised a list of characteristics of deviation from ideal mental health -> if do not fit, classed as abnormal

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22
Q

what are the 6 categories of good mental health

A
  1. high level of self esteem and a positive view of the self
  2. autonomy and the ability to act independently
  3. personal growth and development
  4. accurate perception of reality
  5. engages in positive friendships and relationships
  6. ability to deal with stressful situations (environmental mastery)
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23
Q

evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health (peeleel)

A

p- unrealistic criteria
ev- not everyone will be able to meet all 6, eg. environmental mastery if suffering anxiety, how many not met before abnormal?, criteria are hard to measure
ex- individuals are complex and flawed, may not be suffering any mental health disorders but still not have high self esteem, subjectivity makes it hard to measure
l- ftf better to identify abnormality using undesirable behaviours, easier to judge as more specific and well defined, but dimh is a positive approach
ev- looks at desirable rather than undesirable, more positive, person simply works towards developing all 6 categories
ex- gives people something to work towards, rather than avoid, more accommodating
l- huge implications in psychology in spotting signs of mental illness and therefore treatment

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24
Q

evaluation of deviation of ideal mental health (peel)

A

p- tries to equate a physical illness to mental illness
ev- physical illness are treatable or not and affect physical functioning, mental illnesses are hard to treat due to subjectivity and affect people highly differently
ex- mental illnesses are much harder to assess and treat than physical illnesses, mental illnesses are much more complex
l- ftf would show symptoms in form of being able to do physical tasks, more valid in assessing and treating, progress can be observed

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25
Q

what are the three types of phobia

A

specific, social, agoraphobia

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26
Q

define specific phobias

A

a fear/avoidance of a particular object/situation

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27
Q

define social phobias

A

fear of humiliation/embarrassment/being judged in social situations

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28
Q

define agoraphobia

A

fear of being outside/in public spaces

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29
Q

what are the 3 characteristics of phobias

A

behavioural, emotional, cognitive

30
Q

define phobias

A

anxiety disorders classified by an extreme, irrational fear of an object/situation, causing it to negatively impact someone’s everyday life

31
Q

what are the 3 main behavioural reactions (phobias)

A

avoidance- go to a lot of effort to avoid coming into contact with their phobia
endurance- if phobia is inescapable, the sufferer will experience high levels of anxiety
panic behaviour- activation of the fight or flight response

32
Q

what are the 2 emotional responses to phobias

A

anxiety- unpleasant state of high arousal
fear- response experienced when the phobia is thought about

33
Q

what are the 3 cognitive responses to phobias

A

irrational thoughts- irrational beliefs increase fear
cognitive distortions- person is aware that their fear is excessive
selective attention- inability to concentrate on anything but the phobia

34
Q

what does the behavioural approach believe about phobias

A

all behaviour, including abnormal, is learned
learning can be understood in terms of conditioning and modelling
what was learned can be unlearned
no need to analyse thoughts/feelings, only actions/behaviour

35
Q

describe watson and rayner’s study (little albert)

A

baby albert (9 months), white rat (NS) paired with hammer hitting steel bar (UCS) when he reached to pet it, creating the CR of fear when the white rat (now CS) was presented, phobia of rat transferred to other white furry objects

36
Q

what does operant conditioning suggest about phobias

A

phobias are maintained by avoidance of phobic stimulus, escaping the fear is rewarding so the phobia is maintained

37
Q

describe what two process model says about phobias

A

classical conditioning forms the phobia, operant conditioning maintains it

38
Q

what does social learning theory suggests about how phobias form

A

phobias are acquired through modelling the behaviour of parents (attention, retention, motor reproduction, motivation)

39
Q

evaluation of behaviourist explanation of phobias (peel 1)

A

p- some phobias do not follow trauma
ev- some phobias occur from bad experience -> evidently classical conditioning, sometimes phobias are developed despite having no bad experience
ex- social learning theory may be better explanation, child may see parent react fearfully to stimulus, avoid it and reduce anxiety, child follows model and phobia is maintained through direct and vicarious reinforcement
l- classical conditioning is a weak explanation, doesn’t account for non-traumatic formation of phobias, also doesn’t account for how certain situations can lessen phobia eg. agoraphobic but can go out if someone else there

40
Q

evaluation of behaviourist explanation for phobias (peeleel)

A

p- explanation useful in explaining and treating phobias
ev- two process model (1960) improved on watson and rayner’s classical conditioning, explains how phobias can be maintained over time, had important implications for therapy
ex- explains why patients need to be exposed to feared stimulus -> if prevented from practicing avoidance, behaviour not reinforced so phobia declines, if phobia can be treated by reducing avoidance, suggests phobia is learned
l- two process model ignores biology and evolutionary factors which can influence development of phobias
ev- Bounton, evolutionary factors may have important role in some phobias, easily acquire phobias of things considered dangerous in our past eg. snakes, the dark, adaptive to acquire these fears
ex- Seligman argues we are innately designed to acquire certain fears (biological preparedness), can explain why difficult to acquire phobias of recent inventions such as cars, guns -> not around long enough to evolutionarily develop fear of
l- behavioural explanation cannot explain all eventualities of how phobias form, not all learnt

41
Q

what are the 3 steps to systematic desensitisation

A
  1. relaxation
  2. anxiety hierachy
  3. exposure
42
Q

detail systematic desensitisation step 1 (relaxation)

A

therapist teaches patient to relax using techniques such as breathing techniques, visualisation of peaceful scenes, progressive muscle relaxation

43
Q

detail systematic desensitisation step 2 (anxiety hierarchy)

A

hierarchy of fear formed between patient and therapist, most frightening stimulus at one end, least at the other

44
Q

detail systematic desensitisation step 3 (exposure)

A

patient is gradually exposed to fear (in vivo, in vitro, modelling) using hierarchy used while doing relaxation techniques, patient masters each level of anxiety hierarchy, if become fearful, previous step is revisited

45
Q

describe the 3 techniques used in exposure

A

in vivo- person comes into contact with feared stimulus
in vitro- non-contact, uses pictures/imagines feared stimulus
modelling- patient watches someone else coping well with feared stimulus

46
Q

describe the process of flooding to treat phobias

A

directly exposes patient to feared stimulus, aims to show patient there is no basis for their fear, without avoidance, patient loses phobia quickly (extinction)

47
Q

evaluation of systematic desensitisation (peel 1)

A

p- systematic desensitisation is an effective treatment for phobias
ev- McGrath et al reported approx 75% of patients with phobias respond to SD
ex- SD multiple methods of exposure prepare the patient for different instances of exposure, teaches them how to deal with phobia to reduce anxiety
l- in vivo is most effective technique, suggests maybe flooding is better, Choy et al found flooding more effective than SD and quicker

48
Q

evaluation of systematic desensitisation (peel 2)

A

p- SD may not be effective for all types of phobias
ev- Ohman et al suggested that SD may not work for phobias that have underlying evolutionary survival component
ex- doesn’t account for biological factors like evolutionary phobias, fear of dark/heights may have evolutionary advantage to promote survival, not all phobias can/need to be treated?
l- both flooding and SD only treats symptoms, not cause of phobia, little hans (freud) had phobia of horses because he projected fear of castration from his father

49
Q

evaluation of flooding (peeleel)

A

p- flooding is more economically viable (quicker and cheaper) than SD or CBT
ev- CBT requires people to be motivated over a longer period of time to treat phobia, flooding is supposedly instant
ex- flooding is more cost effective, phobia is supposedly treated after one session, CBT/SD are more expensive because long term
l- flooding is potentially traumatic so higher chance of refusal, attrition and relapse, if doesn’t work, not as economically viable as SD/CBT, unethical to expose someone to phobia in traumatic way
ev- flooding does not follow protection from harm, flooding can induce extremely high levels of anxiety and fear which can cause distress and be traumatic
ex- flooding can not be used for all patients such as children or vulnerable adults who may be severely affected by therapy and not treated
l- effective for some but not all, treatments should be tailored to the individual to be effective in treating the phobia, some people may be treatment resistant and been exposed to trauma unnecessarily

50
Q

define depression

A

a mental health disorder characterised by a pervasive and persistent low mood accompanied by low self esteem, lack of energy and difficulty maintaining concentration or interest in life

51
Q

name 3 different types of depression

A

major depressive disorder, premenstrual dysphoric disorder, persistent depressive disorder

52
Q

what is required for a depression diagnosis

A

5 symptoms present for over two weeks

53
Q

what are the behavioural characteristics of depression

A

changes in activity levels, disruption to sleep and eating behaviour, aggression and self harm

54
Q

what are the emotional characteristics of depression

A

lowered mood, anger, lowered self-esteem, loss of interest and pleasure in hobbies

55
Q

what are the cognitive characteristics of depression

A

poor concentration, attending to and dwelling on the negative, absolutist thinking, negative self beliefs

56
Q

outline Ellis’ ABC model

A

A- activating event -> triggers rational/irrational beliefs
B- beliefs -> lead to consequence
C- consequences (of B) -> rational beliefs = adaptive, appropriate consequences

57
Q

what did Ellis believe about disorders

A

all disorders begin with an activating event
the key to mental disorders lay in irrational beliefs
the source of irrational beliefs in is mustabatory thinking- certain ideas must be true for an individual to be happy

58
Q

outline Beck’s negative triad

A

negative schemas and cognitive biases maintain the negative triad- pessimistic and irrational thoughts that spur each other on in areas of the self, the future, and the world (experiences)

59
Q

give the examples of Beck’s faulty thinking strategies

A

arbitrary inferences (negative conclusions from insufficient evidence), selective thinking (ignoring positive and focusing on negative) , overgeneralisation (drawing large conclusions on single event), catastrophising (exaggerating minor setback to disaster), personalising (taking responsibility and blame), black and white thinking (everything is either success or failure)

60
Q

evaluation of the cognitive approach to explain depression (peeleel)

A

p- support for role of irrational thinking
ev- depressed ppts became more depressed when given negative automatic thought statements
ex- cognitive approach is valid explanation for formation of depression through irrational and negative thought processes, support for Beck’s negative triad- continuation of negative thoughts, cycle of depression cannot be escaped (pessimism)
l- ‘irrational’ beliefs may not always be indicator of mental disorder, common and not always maladaptive, may be realistic
ev- depressed people gave more accurate estimates of the likelihood of disaster than controls- the sadder but wiser effect
ex- ‘irrational’ thinking may actually be more accurate, individuals predict realistic outcomes of situations means thoughts may actual be rational and logical
l- questions validity of cognitive approach, Beck suggests irrational thoughts are the cause of depression, maybe only considered ‘irrational’ because people with depression are the minority in their thinking process

61
Q

evaluation of the cognitive approach to explain depression (peel 1)

A

p- cognitive explanation is useful, practical applications in therapy
ev- both cognitive explanations have been applied to cbt- consistently found to be the best treatment for depression, especially in conjunction with drug treatment
ex- cognitive explanation is valid as it has useful and effective applications in real life, Ellis’ ABC model can be used to asses cause and effect of depression of activating event on depression, provides method of treatment- patient can be encouraged to identify irrational beliefs and change them
l- some basis for irrational thoughts = depression, cbt would not work if not

62
Q

evaluation of the cognitive approach to explain depression (peel 2)

A

p- alternative explanations, biological approach -> genes and neurotransmitters causes depression
ev- low levels of serotonin in depressed people, related gene is 10x more common in people with depression
ex- cognitive explanation cannot explain influence of biology on depression, irrational thoughts alone may not cause depression, possibly no activating event, low serotonin -> irrational thoughts?
l- cognitive explanation may explain some people’s experiences of depression, cannot explain all, irrational thoughts simply part of depression (caused biologically) rather than the cause itself

63
Q

outline Ellis’ ABCDEF model

A

A- activating effect
B- beliefs (irrational)
C- consequences (undesirable effects on behaviour/feelings)
D- disputing irrational thoughts (forming rational thoughts)
E- effects on behaviour and feelings
F- new feelings (emotions) produced

64
Q

evaluation of the cognitive approach to treating depression (peeleel)

A

p- research support
ev- Ellis claimed a 90% success rate for REBT, average of 27 sessions to complete
ex- effective treatment for depression, majority found cbt helpful, cbt does not have to continue for life, provides client with way to deal with depression on their own
l- only as good as the therapist, also dependent on whether the client stays committed to putting new beliefs into practice, individual differences impact effectiveness
ev- cbt less suitable for people with high levels of irrational beliefs that are rigid and resistant to change
ex- cbt may not be effective for everyone, eg. homework given may not be completed by resistant patients, must be willing to improve for cbt to be effective
l- this is often the hardest step for people with depression, hard to treat those who are especially treatment resistant

65
Q

evaluation of the cognitive approach to treating depression (peel 1)

A

p- existence of alternative treatments disputes effectiveness of cbt
ev- most popular depression treatment is antidepressants eg. SSRIs, cbt most effective when used with drug therapy
ex- holistic approach may be most effective, drugs allow patient to properly engage in cbt, considers both biological and cognitive causes of depression
l- combined drug therapy and cbt may be most effective option long term

66
Q

define obsession

A

a recurrent, persistent and unwanted thought

67
Q

define compulsion

A

a repetitive, ritualised behaviour

68
Q

how does OCD function as a cycle

A

obsessive thought -> anxiety -> compulsion -> short term relief of anxiety -> obsessive thought returns

69
Q

outline the 2 behavioural characteristics of OCD

A
  1. compulsive behaviours
  2. avoidance behaviours
70
Q

outline the 3 emotional characteristics of OCD

A
  1. anxiety and distress
  2. accompanying depression
  3. guilt and disgust
71
Q

outline the 3 cognitive characteristics of OCD

A
  1. obsessive thoughts
  2. cognitive strategies
  3. hypervigilance

Psychology (9 decks)

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