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Jess Cornthwaite Psychology > Psychopathology > Flashcards

Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is meant by “statistical infrequency”?

A

Behaviour is not numerically common, eg falls at either end of a normative distribution pattern

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2
Q

What is a problem with defining abnormality as statistical infrequency?

A

The idea of abnormality is that it is undesirable and hence psych can treat it to return the person to normality. Someone could be displaying desirable and yet statistically infrequent behaviour, eg v high IQ

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3
Q

What is meant by deviation from social norms?

A

Behaviour is abnormal is it is different to the normative (socially acceptable) patterns of behaviour. This definition therefore is culturally biased and biased according to historical times. For instance, by this definition homosexuality has “magically” changed from being abnormal to acceptable in the UK in the past years. Due to legal persecutions, people kept their sexuality secret, and thus to be outwardly gay would be seen to violate social norms.

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4
Q

What are 4 definitions of abnormality?

A

Deviation from social norms
Failure to function adequately
Deviation from ideal mental health
Statistical infrequency

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5
Q

Who listed the categories of ideal mental health?

A

Jahoda

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6
Q

What does OCD stand for?

A

Obsessive compulsive disorder!

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7
Q

What is the cognitive element of OCD?

A

Obsessions - thought patterns which may be accompanied by anxiety and depression

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8
Q

What is the behavioural element of OCD?

A

Compulsions - the performance of an action in order to satisfy an obsession, eg putting objects at right-angles to keep your child safe

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9
Q

What is the difference between unipolar and bipolar depression?

A

Unipolar - one way. Mood is low

Bipolar - two ways. Mood varies from high to low

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10
Q

What type/classification of disorder is OCD?

A

An anxiety disorder

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11
Q

What type/classification of disorder is depression?

A

A mood disorder

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12
Q

What does DSM stand for?

A

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. Used in USA. Only contains “mental disorders”

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13
Q

Which model of disorder classification does the WHO (including UK) use?

A

ICD. International Classification of Disease. Contains physical and mental disorders

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14
Q

What issues are there with DSM?

A

Voting system to inclusion of disorders leads anti-psychiatrists to argue against labelling. They believe it is not a valid (true) tool of measurement and that it is a marketing ploy!

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15
Q

Who was Rosenhan and what did he do?

A

Sent 8 pseudo-patients to 12 psychiatric hospitals in USA to see 1. If they would be admitted, and 2. If admitted, how long it would take them to get out

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16
Q

Was Rosenhan a pseudo-patient?

A

Yes. This has led to accusations of researcher bias as it’s been suggested that he withheld some information

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17
Q

How many pills were the pseudo patients given?

A
  1. They didn’t take them!
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18
Q

What did they have to do to start the study?

A

Visit a doctor and say they kept hearing same-sex voices saying “empty, hollow and thud”

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19
Q

Did anyone guess the pseudo patients were imposters?

A

Yes! But only the other patients

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20
Q

Did the pseudo patients get diagnosed?

A

Yes, all but one with schizophrenia

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21
Q

How did they try to get out and what happened?

A

They acted normally. Were “released” with diagnoses of schizophrenia in remission. Ranged from 7-52 days. Average was 19.

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22
Q

What does the Rosenhan study show/conclude?

A

That it’s not possible to reliably distinguish between sanity and insanity

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23
Q

What was the research method of Rosenhan?

A

Covert participant observation

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24
Q

What are the weaknesses of Rosenhan’s research?

A

Potential bias
Unable to immediately record (unless a roused suspicion and led to data-skewing by increasing likelihood of increased perception of a normality)
Therefore relied on memory (see theories of forgetting)
Population validity issues - only 12 hospitals
More than one researcher - potential issues with inter-observer reliability
Ethics - for researchers and participants!
Researchers - exposed to harm (stuck) so lack of perception
Participants- the hospitals- deception and lack of RTW

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25
Q

What does RTW stand for?

A

Right to withdraw

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26
Q

Define phobia

A

An irrational fear of an object, situation or event

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27
Q

What is the two process model of phobias?

A

We acquire the phobia through classical conditioning (association- like Little Albert) and we maintain it through operant conditioning (avoidance is rewarding and so reinforcing)

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28
Q

What are the strengths of the two process model of phobias?

A

It’s scientifically testable and so falsifiable - focuses only on behaviour which can be measured
It has face validity/everyday realism - it makes sense
It has supporting evidence
Behavioural therapies have good success rates

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29
Q

What are the weaknesses of the two-process model?

A

It’s reductionist - focuses only on learning (evidence suggestions that we might be genetically programmed to fear dangerous animals, see Bennet-Levy and Marteau)
It’s unethical to test it - see problems with Little Albert
It ignores the most important aspect of a phobia - thoughts!

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30
Q

Who designed systematic desensitisation?

A

Wolpe

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31
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A

A behavioural therapy
Systematic - grades hierarchy of anxiety producing events designed by client and therapist
Desensitisation- deep muscle relaxation at the same time as working your way up the hierarchy

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32
Q

What are strengths of systematic desensitisation?

A

It’s graded and so easier than alternatives
It’s effective
The client is involved in designing the hierarchy
It can be in real life or in imagination (some fears, eg death, can’t be faced in real life)

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33
Q

What are the weaknesses of systematic desensitisation?

A

It’s reductionist
It isn’t free
It requires an articulate and motivated client
It can reinforce the phobia is treatment is not completed

34
Q

What is reciprocal inhibition?

A

The idea that you can’t be relaxed and scared at the same time. The basis of SD and why relaxation is paired.

35
Q

In behavioural terms, what is the aim of SD?

A

To replace fear responses (to phobic object) with relaxation. To alter the stimulus- response link

36
Q

Pixie was stung by a bee. Now she’s scared of wasps and flies. Referring to a study, explain why.

A

She’s generalised her learnt response (fear) which is a feature of classical conditioning. Evidence for this is Little Albert

37
Q

What is flooding?

A

A behavioural therapy for phobias. The person is exposed to the highest anxiety producing event immediately and is unable to avoid (negatively reinforce) it.

38
Q

On what assumption does flooding base itself?

A

The idea that high levels of anxiety can only be maintained for a set time period, after which they will decline. This decline will reset (not re-program) the S-R link

39
Q

What are the correct terms for in real life and in imagination?

A 
in vivo (actual exposure), or
in vitro (imaginary exposure)
40
Q 
Is flooding in vivo (actual exposure), or
in vitro (imaginary exposure)?
A

CAN be both

41
Q

What are the strengths of flooding?

A

One strength of flooding is it provides a cost effective treatment for phobias. Research has suggested that flooding is comparable to other treatments, including systematic desensitisation and cognition therapies (Ougrin, 2011), however it is significantly quickly. This is a strength because patients are treated quicker and it is more cost effective for health service providers.

42
Q

What is a weakness of flooding?

A

is highly traumatic for patients and causes a high level of anxiety. Although patients provide informed consent, many do not complete their treatment because the experience is too stressful and therefore flooding is sometimes a waste of time and money, if patients do not finish their therapy.

Finally, although flooding is highly effective for simple (specific) phobias, the treatment is less effective for other types of phobia, including social phobia and agoraphobia

43
Q

Does flooding involve relaxation?

A

Yes! The client is taught relaxation techniques and these techniques are then applied to the most feared situation either through direct exposure, or imagined exposure.

44
Q

How is depression treated?

A

CBT or RE(B)T

45
Q

What causes depression according to the cognitive approach?

A

Faulty processing.

Think (held in schemas and acquired via environment) - feel - behave

46
Q

What was Ellis’ contribution to understanding the cause of depression?

A

The ABC Model?

47
Q

Who devised the ABC model?

A

Ellis!

48
Q

What is the ABC model?

A

Activating event
Beliefs
Consequences

49
Q

Describe the ABC model in detail

A

Ellis proposed the A-B-C three stage model, to explain how irrational thoughts could lead to depression. The A stands for an activating event (e.g. you pass a friend in the corridor at school, and he/she ignores you, despite the fact you said ‘hello’). The B stands for beliefs, which can be either rational or irrational (e.g. an irrational interpretation of the event might be that you think your friend dislikes you and never wants to talk to you again). The C stands for consequences, and according to Ellis, irrational beliefs lead to unhealthy emotional outcomes, including depression (e.g. I will ignore my friend and delete their mobile number, as they clearly don’t want to talk to me).

50
Q

What did March (2007) find?

A

Research by March et al. (2007) found that CBT was as effective as antidepressants, in treating depression. The researchers examined 327 adolescents with a diagnosis of depression and looked at the effectiveness of CBT, antidepressants and a combination of CBT plus antidepressants. After 36 weeks, 81% of the antidepressant group and 81% of the CBT group had significantly improved, demonstrating the effectiveness of CBT in treating depression. However, 86% of the CBT plus antidepressant group had significantly improved, suggesting that a combination of both treatments may be more effective.

51
Q

What are the 4 stages of CBT and what does it stand for?

A

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Initial assessment
Goal setting
Identifying negative/irrational thoughts and challenging these:
Either using Beck’s Cognitive Therapy or Ellis’s REBT
Homework

52
Q

Why is the therapy cognitive and behaviourist?

A

Cognitive- identifies, challenges and re-programmes thoughts

Behavioural- reinforces new behaviour patterns

53
Q

What is Beck’s Cognitive Triad?

A

An explanation for depression.

The cognitive triad are three forms of negative (i.e. helpless and critical) thinking that are typical of individuals with depression: namely negative thoughts about the self, the world and the future. These thoughts tended to be automatic in depressed people as they occurred spontaneously.

54
Q

How does the Cognitive Triad lead to depression?

A

As these three components interact, they interfere with normal cognitive processing, leading to impairments in perception, memory and problem solving with the person becoming obsessed with negative thoughts.

55
Q

What biases in processing associated with depression did Beck identify?

A

Arbitrary Inference. Drawing a negative conclusion in the absence of supporting data.
Selective Abstraction. Focusing on the worst aspects of any situation.
Magnification and Minimisation. If they have a problem they make it appear bigger than it is. If they have a solution they make it smaller.
Personalization. Negative events are interpreted as their fault.
Dichotomous Thinking. Everything is seen as black and white. There is no in between.

56
Q

What is musterbation?

A

Believing you must be good at everything, otherwise you’re a failure

57
Q

Describe the research and findings of Alloy (1999) or another study to support the cognitive explanation of depression

A

He did a longitudinal study charting the thinking styles of young Americans in their early 20s for 6 years. Their thinking style was tested and they were placed in either the ‘positive thinking group’ or ‘negative thinking group’. After 6 years the researchers found that only 1% of the positive group developed depression compared to 17% of the ‘negative’ group. These results indicate there may be a link between cognitive style and development of depression.

58
Q

What are weaknesses of longitudinal studies?

A

Often rely on correlational analyses
P may withdraw during the study - known as access issues
Demand characteristics may occur - likely to eventually guess the aims
Those who stay to the end are generally the most interested - leads to biased sample
Exorbitantly expensive and time consuming

59
Q

Who electrocuted puppies and why?

A

Seligman. To see is depression was caused by learned helplessness- an alternative (behaviourist) explanation. Those who had previously been unable to escape, stopped trying

60
Q

Does the cognitive approach use NHAs?

A

Yes, but with care. They believe (correctly) that due to different brain structures (hardware) animals may process information differently to humans

61
Q

Evaluate the cognitive explanations of depression

A

S - looks at the processes between stimulus and response
S - considers nature and nurture
S - scientific and evidence based
S - therapies work
W - deterministic - cognitive determinism
W - there appears to be a genetic link
W - woman are more likely to experience (or report) depression and this approach does not explain why
W - isn’t abnormality a “sane reaction to an insane world”? (RD Laing)

62
Q

What is the COMT gene and how is it linked to OCD?

A

The COMT gene is associated with the production of , which regulates the neurotransmitter dopamine. One variation of the COMT gene results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients with OCD, in comparison to people without OCD.

63
Q

What is the SERT gene and how is it linked to OCD?

A

The SERT gene is linked to the neurotransmitter serotonin and affects the transport of the serotonin (hence SERotonin Transporter), causing lower levels of serotonin which is also associated with OCD (and depression)

64
Q

Which 2 neurotransmitters are involved in OCD?

A

Serotonin and dopamine

65
Q

Which brain structures are involved in OCD?

A

Basal ganglia and orbitofrontal cortex

66
Q

How is the basal ganglia involved in OCD?

A

The basal ganglia is a brain structure involved in multiple processes, including the coordination of movement. Patients who suffer head injuries in this region often develop OCD-like symptoms, following their recovery. Furthermore, Max et al. (1994) found that when the basal ganglia is disconnected from the frontal cortex during surgery, OCD-like symptoms are reduced, providing further support for the role of the basal ganglia in OCD.

67
Q

How is the orbitofrontal cortex involved in OCD?

A

Another brain region associated with OCD is the orbitofrontal cortex, a region which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions. PET scans have found higher activity in the orbitofrontal cortex in patients with. One suggestion is that the heightened activity in the orbitofrontal cortex increases the conversion of sensory information to actions (behaviours) which results in compulsions. The increased activity also prevents patients from stopping their behaviours.

68
Q

Describe a family study into OCD

A

Lewis (1936) examined patients with OCD and found that 37% of the patients with OCD had parents with the disorder and 21% had siblings who suffered. Research from family studies, like Lewis, provide support for a genetic explanation to OCD, although it does not rule out other (environmental) factors playing a role.

69
Q

Describe a twin study into OCD

A

Nestadt et al. (2010) conducted a review of previous twin studies examining OCD. They found that 68% of identical twins and 31% of non-identical twins experience OCD, which suggests a very strong genetic component.

70
Q

Has a twin study ever found a 100% concordance rate for OCD?

A

Nope. This means it isn’t wholly genetic!

71
Q

These drugs work by blocking re-uptake of serotonin by the pre-synaptic neuron and an example is Prozac. What is the question?

A

What are SSRIs?

72
Q

What does SSRI stand for?

A

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor

73
Q

What is re-uptake?

A

The process which the pre-synaptic neuron recycles and reuses neurotransmitters

74
Q

Are neurotransmitters electric or chemical signals?

A

Chemical messengers which cross the synaptic cleftv

75
Q

Another type of drug which increases serotonin availability is?

A

MAOI

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Stop monoamine digesting serotonin in the synaptic cleft

76
Q

Why do SSRIs work?

A

Increase mood and reduce anxiety which accompanies obsessions and therefore reduces compulsions

77
Q

What is GABA?

A

The go-slow, relaxation neurotransmitter

78
Q

What is the type of drug that increase GABA?

A

Benzodiazepines- eg diazepam

79
Q

What does GABA stand for?

A

gamma-aminobutyric acid

80
Q

Describe a study supporting the biological approach to OCD treatment

A

Use any. This one is good though!

Soomro et al. (2008) conducted a review of the research examining the effectiveness of SSRIs and found that SSRIs were more effective than placebos in the treatment of OCD, in 17 different trials. This supports the use of biological treatments, especially SSRIs, for OCD. NOTE - success is lower when active placebos are used!

Jess Cornthwaite Psychology (6 decks)

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