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Psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are 4 criteria for defining abnormality?

A
  1. Deviation from social norms.
  2. Failure to function adequately.
  3. Deviation from the ideal mental health.
  4. Statistical infrequency.
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2
Q

What is a norm?

A

Expected form of behaviour. All societies have them, they are an important part of what holds societies together.

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3
Q

What are explicit norms?

A

Written laws.

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4
Q

What are implicit norms?

A

‘Laws’ that aren’t written.

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5
Q

Deviation from social norms.

Which behaviour does it consider abnormal?

A

Anti-social behaviour.

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6
Q

3 strengths of Deviation from social norms.

A
  • Real life application: used to diagnose certain disorders.
  • Situational norms: consider the social dimension of behaviour.
  • Protcet society
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7
Q

3 weaknesses of Deviation from social norms.

A
  • Cultural differences.
  • Not constant, social norms vary over time.
  • Individualism.
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8
Q

Define failure to function adequately.

A

This sees individuals as abnormal when their behaviour suggest that they cannot cope with everyday life.

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9
Q

Failure to function adequately.

When does it consider a behaviour abnormal?

A

When it causes distress leading to an inability to function properly.

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10
Q

What does Rosenhan and Seligman suggest?

A

The more features of personal dysfunction a person has, the more likely they are to be classed as abnormal.

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11
Q

Rosenhan and Seligman’s features of personal dysfunction.

A
  1. Observer discomfort
  2. Unpredictability
  3. Irrationality
  4. Maladaptiveness
  5. Personal suffering and distress
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12
Q

What is Observer discomfort?

A

Another’s behaviour causes discomfort and distress to the observer.

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13
Q

What is unpredictability?

A

We rely on the behaviour of people around us being predictable when it’s not it leads us to think something is wrong.

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14
Q

Define Irrationality?

A

Displaying behaviour that cannot be explained in a rational way or is hard to understand.

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15
Q

Explain what maladaptiveness is.

A

When behaviour hinders an individual from adjusting to a particular situation socially or ocupationally.

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16
Q

Explain what personal suffering and distress is.

A

Failure to cope with everyday life causes personal suffering and distress to the individual.

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17
Q

Evaluation of failure to function adequately.

3 strengths.

A
  1. It assesses the degree of abnormality.
  2. Observable behaviour.
  3. Provides a practical checklist.
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18
Q

Evaluation of failure to function adequately.

3 limitations

A
  1. Doesn’t consider normal abnormality.
  2. Abnormality isn’t always accompanied by disfunction.
  3. Subjective nature of feature of disfunction.
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19
Q

Define Deviation from Ideal Mental Health.

A

Jahoda (1958) suggested that there were 6 criteria that needed to be fulfilled for ideal mental health (‘normality’).

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20
Q

Six criteria suggested by Jahoda.

A
  1. Positive attitude towards the self
  2. Self-actualisation
  3. Resistance to stress
  4. Personal autonomy
  5. Accurate perception of reality
  6. Adapting to the environment
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21
Q

Explain positive attitude towards the self.

A

Having positive self-respect and self-concept.

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22
Q

Explain self-actualisation.

A

Being in a state of contentment, feeling that you have become the best you can be.

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23
Q

Explain resistance to stress.

A

An individual should not feel under stress and they should be able to handle stressful situations competently.

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24
Q

Explain personal autonomy.

A

The ability to function as an individual and not depending on others.

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25
Q

Explain accurate perception of reality.

A

Receiving the world in a non-distorted fashion, having an objective and realistic view of the world.

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26
Q

Explain adapting to the environment.

A

The person can adapt to new situations and be at ease at all situations in their life.

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27
Q

Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health.

2 strengths

A
  • Positive and holistic.

- Goal setting.

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28
Q

Evaluation of deviation from ideal mental health.

3 limitations

A
  • Over-demanding criteria, unrealistic.
  • Subjective criteria.
  • Cultural variation, based on western ideas.
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29
Q

Define Statistical Infrequency.

A

A behaviour is seen as abnormal if it is statistically uncommon, or not seen very often in society. Based on mathematical principle of normal distribution.

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30
Q

What is Normal Distribution?

A

Arrangement of data that is symmetrical and forms a bell-shaped pattern where the mean, median and/or mode falls in the centre at the highest peak.

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31
Q

Evaluation of Statistical Infrequency.

2 strengths

A
  • Objective.

- Real-life application and clear guidelines.

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32
Q

Evaluation of Statistical Infrequency.

3 limitations

A
  • Not all infrequent behaviours are normal.
  • Not all abnormal behaviours are infrequent.
  • Cultural factors.
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33
Q

Define phobias.

A

Type of anxiety disorder. Phobias are characterised by a uncontrollable fear that is excessive or unreasonable, cued by the presence or anticipation of a specific object or situation.

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34
Q

What are the 3 types of phobias?

A
  1. Specific phobias - anxious in the presence.
  2. Social phobias - anxious just thinking about it.
  3. Agoraphobia - anxious when leave safe place.
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35
Q

What is the two-process model according to the behavioural approach?

A
  1. The aquisition of phobias is seen as ocurring directly through classical conditioning or indirectly through social learning theory.
  2. Maintenance of phobias through operant conditioning.
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36
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

It occurs when a stimulus that produces a reflex response (i.e. fear) is associated with a diff. stimulus producing the same reflex stimulus.

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37
Q

Which 2 researchs support Classical conditioning?

A
  • Pavlov’s dogs (1903).

- Little Albert (1920).

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38
Q

SLT - What is Operant conditioning?

A

How the consequences of an action can make that action more or less likely to be repeated.
There’s positive and negative reinforcement.

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39
Q

2 strenghts of Operant conditioning.

A
  • Bandura and Rosenthal ‘s study (1966).

- Supported by treatments: systematic desensitisation.

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40
Q

What are 2 weaknesses of Operant conditioning?

A
  • Individual deifferences: DiNardo’s study.

- Reductionist.

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41
Q

What does the behavioural approach suggests to treat phobias?

A

Systematic desensitisation (SD).

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42
Q

What is SD?

A

Behavioural therapy based on classical conditioning that aims to gradually reduce phobic anxiety. A new response to the phobic object is learned, instead of fear - to be relaxed.

43
Q

Name the 3 processes involved in SD.

A
  1. The anxiety hierarchy.
  2. Relaxation.
  3. Gradual exposure.
44
Q

Define the anxiety hierarchy.

A

Put together by the patient + therapist. List of situations related to the phobic stimulus that provoke anxiety.
order: least to most frightening.

45
Q

Define relaxation.

A

Therapist teaches the patient to relax as deeply possible by, e.g. breathing exercises, meditation or mental imagery techniques.

46
Q

What is gradual exposure?

A

Patient is exposed to the phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state. This takes place across several sessions, starting at the bottom of the hierarchy.

47
Q

Evaluation of the SD.

3 strengths.

A
  • Patients prefer it, it doesn’t cause = degree of trauma as flooding.
  • Effective in treatment of specific phobias: Gilory et al (2003).
  • VRET provides less exposure to harm: Rothbaum et al.
48
Q

Evaluation of the SD.

2 limitations

A
  • Side effects with VRET. e.g. nausea

- Causes extreme anxiety.

49
Q

What is flooding?

A

Invloves putting the phobic individual in a situation where they would be forced to face their phobia. This inescapable exposure lasts until fear disappears.
No option of avoidance.

50
Q

Why is it important that the session (flooding) doesn’t end before a reduction in anxiety?

A

It may have the opposite effect and reinforce the phobia.

51
Q

What is in vivo and in vitro exposure.

A
  • Presenting feared object.

- Imaginary exposure.

52
Q

Evaluation of flooding as a treatment of phobias.

Strength

A

Cost effective - quicker than cognitie therapies, patients are free of their symptoms, as less sessions required, less cost.

53
Q

Evaluation of flooding as a treatment of phobias.

3 limitations.

A
  • Less effective for some kinds of phobias. e.g. social phobias
  • Traumatic.
  • Health issues.
54
Q

What is OCD?

A

Anxiety-related condition where a person experiences frequent obsessional thoughts, followed by compulsions, impulses..

55
Q

Clinical symptoms of OCD.

Cognitive

A
  • Obsessive thoughts.
  • Attentional bias: focused on anxiety generating stimuli - hypervigilance.
  • Insight into excessive anxiety - patients are aware, but have catastrophic thoughts.
56
Q

Clinical symptoms of OCD.

Behavioural

A
  • Repetitive compulsions. (reduce anxiety)

- Avoidance

57
Q

Clinical symptoms of OCD.

Emotional

A
  • Anxiety and distress.
  • Depression.
  • Guilt and disgust.
58
Q

Name the 2 biological explanations of OCD.

A
  1. Genetic explanations.

2. Neural explanations.

59
Q

Genetic explanation of OCD.

A
  • Causal explanations.

- Genes make up chromosomes and consist of DNA.

60
Q

Which 2 genes have been linked to OCD?

A
  1. COMT gene - regulation of dopamine.
  2. SERT gene - linked to serotonin.
    This suggests that OCD is polygenic.
61
Q

Evaluation of the genetic explanation of OCD.

2 strengths

A
  • Evidence to support: Lewis (1936).

- Diathesis stress model.

62
Q

Evaluation of the genetic explanation of OCD.

2 limitations

A
  • Dissimilar symptoms.

- Biological Reductionism.

63
Q

Neural explanations to explaining OCD.

A
  1. Various areas of the brain.

2. Neurotransmitters.

64
Q

What did Ursu and Carter (2009) study?

A

They monitored the brain activity of 15 OCD patients by fmri and found hyperactivity in the orbitofrontal cortex, supporting that this area is involved in OCD.

65
Q

Various areas of the brain (VAB) to explain OCD.

A

VAB have been implicated in OCD. (e.g. those involved in decision making)

66
Q

Neurotransmitters to explain OCD.

A

Serotonin: it has a wide-ranging effect on brain cells and has been implicated in many behaviour. E.g. Sleep, memory, emotions.
Dopamine: Involved in regulating movement and helps control the brain’s reward centre and in helping us take action.

67
Q

Define neurotransmitters.

A

Chemicals that transmit nerve impulses across the synapse at the end of a neuron and they are thought to play a part in OCD.

68
Q

What happens if someone has low levels of serotonin?

A

The normal transmission of mood relevant information doesn’t take place therefore it affects mood and other mental processes.

69
Q

What did Hu (2006) study?

A

He compared serotonin activity in 169 OCD sufferers and 253 non-sufferers, finding serotonin levels to be lower in the OCD patients. This supports the theory that low levels of serotonin are associated with the onset of the disorder.

70
Q

What happens if someone has high levels of dopamine?

A

Linked to the compulsive behaviour. This is because when a pleasurable experience occurs this results in increased dopamine levels in the brain leading to a sensation of pleasure. The compulsions in OCD reduce feelings of anxiety which is the rewarding for the sufferer

71
Q

Evaluation of the neural explanation of OCD.

Strength

A

There is evidence to support from effects of medication (SSRIs) that was developed to help sufferers. SSRIs increase the levels of serotonin at the synapse and are beneficial for some OCD sufferers.

72
Q

Evaluation of the neural explanation of OCD.

4 limitations

A
  • Not all of CD sufferers respond positively to drugs that increase serotonin.
  • Some evidence that dopamine is also involved but how is not really known.
  • This lessens the support for abnormal levels of serotonin being the sole cause of OCD.
  • Biological reductionist.
73
Q

Biological approach to treating OCD.

A

Drug therapy is the most common form of biological therapy which aims to increase or decrease levels of, or the amount of activity of neurotransmitters in the brain. Psychosurgery is also occasionally used as a treatment.

74
Q

What does SSRIs stand for?

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

75
Q

What are SSRIs.

A

Standard medical treatment. The increase neurotransmitter levels in the brain by preventing the re-absorption of serotonin. They work and the synaptic gap.

76
Q

How would SSRIs combined with other treatments?

A

Drugs + cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT).

77
Q

What is an alternative to SSRIs?

A

And another alternative antidepressant is tricyclics.

78
Q

Evaluation of biological treatments for OCD.

2 strengths

A
  • Drug therapy effective - Soonoro et Al (2009)

- Cost-effective and non-disruptive.

79
Q

Evaluation of biological treatments for OCD.

2 limitations

A
  • Side effects.

- Concern over biased research.

80
Q

Name 3 clinical symptoms/characteristics of phobias.

A
  1. Cognitive
  2. Behavioural
  3. Emotional
81
Q

Explain the cognitive symptoms of phobias.

A
  • Selective attention to the phobic stimulus.

- Irrational beleifs.

82
Q

Explain the behavioural symptoms of phobias.

A
  • Panic.
  • Avoidance.
  • Endurance.
83
Q

Explain the emotional symptoms of phobias.

A
  • Anxiety and fear.

- Unreasonable response.

84
Q

What are 3 assumptions of the biological approach to abnormality?

A
  1. All mental disroders have a physical cause.
  2. Mental illnesses can be described in terms of syndromes.
  3. Symptoms can be identified, leading to a diagnosis.
85
Q

What are 4 assumptions of the behavioural approach to abnormality?

A
  • All behaviour is learned - including abnormal.
  • Learning can be understood by conditioning and modelling.
  • What’s learned can be unlearned, using = principles.
  • Same “laws” apply to human and animal behaviour.
86
Q

What are 4 assumptions of the cognitive approach to abnormality?

A
  1. Abnormality is a result of faulty cognition.
  2. It’s the way you think about the problem that causes the disorder.
  3. Mental disorders can be overcome by learning to use + appropriate ways of thinking.
  4. The aim is to think positively and rationally.
87
Q

Define depression.

A

Mental health abnormality in which the sufferer experiences a temporary change in mood.

88
Q

What are the clinical symptoms of depression.

Cognitive

A
  • Reduced concentration and memory.
  • Attending to the negative.
  • Absolutist (black an white thinking).
89
Q

What are the clinical symptoms of depression.

Behavioural

A
  • Acrivity levels.
  • Disruption in eating and sleeping behaviour.
  • Aggression and self-harm.
  • Personal hygiene.
90
Q

What are the clinical symptoms of depression.

Emotional

A
  • Constant lowered mood.
  • Lowered self-esteem.
  • Anger.
91
Q

What are the 2 cognitive explanations of depression?

A
  1. Irrational cognitive mechanisms (Beck 1967).

2. The ABC model of depression (Ellis 1962).

92
Q

Irrational cognitive mechanisms - Beck 1967

A

Result of how an individual thinks about themseleves, their world and their future. His patients had irrational thoughts.

93
Q

Name the 3 cognitive mechanisms in Beck’s model of depression.

A
  1. Negative cognitive triad: automatic negative thougths of self, world, future.
  2. Negative self-schemas - result of negative experiences.
  3. Faulty information processing - tendency to cognitively distort reality.
94
Q

Evluation of Beck’s theory.

2 strengths

A
  • Evidence to support: Grazioli and Terry (2000).

- Effective treatmentss. e.g. cognitive behavioural therapy.

95
Q

Evluation of Beck’s theory.

limitation

A

It doesn’t explain all aspects of depression.

96
Q

The ABC model of depression - Ellis (1962)

A

Depression results from irrational thinking.

  • Activation event triggers a negative belief that in turn has a consequence.
  • Belief : individual becomes depresses as consequence reduces confidence.
  • Consequence: this is an emotional response.
97
Q

Evaluation of Ellis’s theory.

Strength

A

Practical application - has lead to REBT (type of CBT).

98
Q

Who developed CBT and what is its aim?

A

Aaron Beck.

To change thoughts so that it lead to a change in behaviour.

99
Q

Beck - treatment of negative automatic thoughts (TNAT).

A

Treatment can last up to 4 months.
Key aspect: thought catching.
Therapist may set HW.

100
Q

Ellis - Rational-Emotive Behaviour therapy (REBT).

A

It extends the model to ABCDE.
D= dispute
E= effect
Treatment: 25 sessions

101
Q

What are 2 different methods of disputing?

A
  1. Empirical argument - wether there is evidence to support the negative beliefs.
  2. Logical argument - wether the negative thought logically follows from facts.
102
Q

Evaluation of CT of depression.

2 strengths

A
  • Effective treatment - Lincoln et al (1977).

- Mainly articulate and motivates patients respond.

103
Q

Evaluation of CT of depression.

2 limitations

A
  • Not suitable for severe caases.

- Long term therapy and drop out rate.

Psychology (11 decks)

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