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MCAT > Psychology/Sociology > Flashcards

Psychology/Sociology Flashcards

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1
Q

absolute threshold

A

the minimum stimulus intensity to activate response 50% of the time

example: a dog’s absolute threshold for smell may be lower than a human’s

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2
Q

difference threshold

A

important for detecting small differences in special sense, the difference that is detectable 50% of the time

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3
Q

Weber’s Law

A

two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion in order for their difference to be perceptible

example: it is harder to tell the difference between a 100 and 101 pound weight than a 1 and 2 pound weight

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4
Q

Signal Detection Theory

A

How a person detects a signal through the noise, either a hit (present and detected), miss (present and not detected), false alarm (detected but not present), or correct rejection (not detected, not present)

examples: detection of tumor on CT scan

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5
Q

sensory adaptation

A

when sensory receptors change sensitivity to stimulus

examples: loud sounds, touch, smell, go away after repeated stimulus

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6
Q

Types of sensory receptors

A
  1. mechanoreceptors - respond to mechanical disturbances, graded response, examples: Pacinian corpuscles and auditory hair cells
  2. chemoreceptors - smell and taste
  3. nociceptors - pain, and referred pain
  4. thermoreceptors - temperature
  5. electromagnetic - rods and cones
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7
Q

order of cells on the retina

A

rods and cones (photoreceptors), bipolar cells, ganglion cells (optic nerve)

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8
Q

myopia

A

nearsightedness - focal point is before the retina

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9
Q

hyperopia

A

farsightedness - focal point is behind the retina

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10
Q

feature detection theory

A

different neurons fire depending on the stimulus, like lines, edges and angles. different areas are activated when looking at different things

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11
Q

parallel processing

A

everything is processed simultaneously instead of step by step, a holistic approach to sensing, requires large amount of resources

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12
Q

membranes separating sections of ear

A 
tympanic membrane (inner and middle ear)
oval window (middle and outer ear) - releases excess pressure
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13
Q

structures important for balance

A

semicircular canals, utricle and saccule

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14
Q

mechanism of hearing

A

vibration of tympanic membrane, vibration to bones, vibration to perilymph and endolymph (fluids in cochlea), vibration of basilar membrane, hair cells connected to tectorial membrane, together are known as organ of Corti

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15
Q

auditory cortex

A

senses sound, located in temporal lobe of brain

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16
Q

hair cells in ear

A

attached to basilar membrane, have cilia on opposite side of cell that contact tectorial membrane, resulting in bending and firing of afferent neurons

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17
Q

location of olfactory bulb

A

in temporal lobe near limbic system which is important for memory and emotion

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18
Q

pheromones

A

chemical signals that cause a social response

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19
Q

kinesthetic sense

A

proprioception, awareness of self, muscles spindle detect muscle stretch, golgi tendon organs in tendons, joint capsule receptors in joints

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20
Q

vestibular sense

A

the semicircular canals, utricle, saccule and ampullae, hair cells that detect motion, monitor acceleration and send afferent signals to the pons and cerebellum

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21
Q

Gestalt principles

A

the whole exceeds the sum of the parts, humans perceive an object rather than a collection of lines

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22
Q

bottom up processing

A

begins with sensory receptors and word up to complex integration of information in brain (brain uses for sensory receptors)

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23
Q

top down processing

A

brain applies experience and expectation to interpret sensory information (brain makes assumptions)

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24
Q

selected attention

A

when one input is attended and the others are tuned out, can have an attended and unattended channel (listening to two different headphones)

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25
Q

Broadbent filter model of selective attention

A

stimuli are put through a filter where important stimuli enter short term memory and less important ones die out

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26
Q

Anne Treisman’s Attenuation model

A

accounts for cocktail party effect, instead of a filter mind has an attenuator that turns up or down

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27
Q

divided attention

A

if and when we can perform multiple tasks at one time

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28
Q

resource model of attention

A

we have a limited amount of resources to put towards attention, too much and task is not accomplished

depends on task similarity, task difficulty, and task practice

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29
Q

information processing model of cognition

A

information is processed through a series of steps including attention, perception and storage into memory, minds are like mental computers

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30
Q

assimilation and accomodation

A

piagets theory of schemas, we either assimilate experiences into our existing schemas or accommodate our schemas to new information

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31
Q

stages of Piagets theory

A
  1. sensoriomotor stage - birth to 2, uses senses, gain object permanence
  2. preoperational stage - 2 to 7, use of symbols and language, are egocentric
  3. concrete operational stage, 7 to 11, logical and concrete thought, principle of conservation
  4. formal operational stage, 12 to adult, abstract and moral reasoning
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32
Q

cognitive changes in late adulthood

A
  1. decline in recall, recognition intact
  2. timed based task decline
  3. slower reaction times
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33
Q

recall vs. recognition

A

recall - retrieving information without clues, recognition - with clues (identifying a suspect on own or from a line up)

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34
Q

role of culture in cognitive development

A

individual and enviornment are in reciprocal relationship, example - expression of thoughts is limited by language

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35
Q

lobe of brain for executive functions like planning and organizing

A

frontal

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36
Q

lobe of brain for formation of new memories

A

hippocampus

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37
Q

lobe of brain for emotion

A

amygdala and limbic system

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38
Q

types of problem solving

A
  1. trial and error
  2. algorithm - step by step procedure
  3. heuristics - mental shortcuts
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39
Q

confirmation bias

A

only search for information that confirms our preconceived thinking, more likely to only view a problem one way

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40
Q

fixation

A

barrier of problem solving, inability to gain a fresh perspective, fixed on mental set even though it may not apply

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41
Q

functional fixedness

A

tendency to perceive the function of objects as fixed and unchanging

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42
Q

representative heuristic

A

tendency to judge the likelihood of an event occurring based on typical mental representations

example: more afraid of shark attack because its more scary even though it is less likely

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43
Q

availability neuristic

A

tendency to make judgements based on availability of information in our memories

example: watching violent crime on news, think violent crime will spread to your neighborhood

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44
Q

belief bias

A

instead of using logic, judge based on beliefs

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45
Q

belief preserverance

A

tendency to cling to previously held belief

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46
Q

overconfidence

A

overestimation of accuracy of knowledge and judgements

example: if you hear test was easy and someone finished quickly, you think you will do better

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47
Q

theories of intelligence

A 
G factor - general intelligence (Spearman)
8 types of intelligence (Gardner)
Triarchic intelligence (Sternberg)
Emotional intelligence
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48
Q

reticular formation

A

structures for maintaining alertness

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49
Q

polysomnography

A

used to measuring physiologic sleep

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50
Q

stages of sleep

A

Stage 1 - theta waves, low intensity, low frequency, fleeting thoughts
Stage 2 - K complexes and sleep spindles, decreased HR and respiration
Stage 3 - slow wave sleep, delta waves, deep sleep
Stage 4 - REM sleep, beta waves (like awake, pysiolocially appear to be awake but there are no muscle movements

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51
Q

sleep cycles

A

stages 1,2,3,4 in sequence, then back then into REM = 90 minutes

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52
Q

circadian rhythm

A

24 hour clock, temp rises in morning then falls in afternoon for sieasta

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53
Q

somnambulsim

A

sleepwalking, during slow wave sleep (3)

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54
Q

night terrors

A

during stage 3 sleep, not REM so it is not remembered

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55
Q

barbituates

A

depress sympathethic nervous system

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56
Q

opiates

A

reduce pain by mimicking endorphins

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57
Q

stimulants

A

increase neurotransmitter uptake or prevent degradation, dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine

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58
Q

nucleus accumbens

A

pleasure center of the brain

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59
Q

encoding

A

process of transferring sensory information into our memory systems, working memory into long term memory

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60
Q

processes the aid in encoding

A

mnemonic
rehearsal - phonological loop
chunking - using discrete groups of data (parts of telephone number)
hierarchies

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61
Q

depth of processing

A

information thought at a deeper level is remembered better, general plot is easier to remember than details

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62
Q

dual coding hypothesis

A

easier to remember words with images than just words alone

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63
Q

iconic memory

A

brief photographic memory that decays quickly

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64
Q

echoic memory

A

memory for sound, lasts 3-4 seconds

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65
Q

brain regions for short term and working memory

A

short term = hippocampus

working = prefrontal cortex

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66
Q

Implicit or procedural memory

A

conditioned associations and knowledge of how to do something (having the muscle memory to shoot a basketball)

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67
Q

explicit or declarative memory

A

being able to declare or voice what is known (explaining how to shot a basketball)

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68
Q

episodic vs semantic memory

A

facts vs experiences

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69
Q

spreading activation

A

retrieval of information from one node may lead to activation of surrounding nodes as well, explains hints and context clues

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70
Q

priming

A

prior activation of nodes for the retrieval of information, context clues help, like you would be less likely to recognize a teacher if you saw them at a store

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71
Q

mood dependent memory

A

what we learn in one state is most easily recalled when we are again in that state

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72
Q

prospective memory

A

remembering what to do in the future, declines in older adults

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73
Q

types of amnesia

A

anterograde - cant form new memories

retrograde - cant recall old memories

74
Q

proactive interference

A

previously learned information interferes with new information

example: remembering where you parked your park in a garage you have been to before

75
Q

retroactive interference

A

new information interferes with old information

example: learning new address and directions interferes with old knowledge

76
Q

positive transfer

A

old information can facilitate learning of new information

77
Q

error in source monitoring

A

problem with people’s memories remembering the source of the information

78
Q

behaviorist model of language (psychologist)

A

BF Skinner, infants trained by operant conditioning, is a behavior like everything else

79
Q

Language acquisition device or universal grammar (psychologist)

A

Noam Chomsky, innate features that allows humans to gain language skills, not born to know the language but may have an innate ability to learn language/grammar

80
Q

Three components of emotion

A

physiologic (body), behavioral (action) and cognitive (mind)

81
Q

universal emotions

A

happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust and anger

82
Q

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A

people perform better when they are moderately aroused

83
Q

James-Lange Theory

A

physiologic and behavioral responses lead to cognitive aspect of emotion

example: you are afraid because you run from a bear

84
Q

Cannon-Bard Theory

A

physiological and cognitive of emotion occur simultaneously and independently and they will lead to a behavioral response

85
Q

Schachter-Singer Theory

A

after experiencing physiological arousal we make a conscious cognitive interpretation based on circumstances

86
Q

main structure involved with emotion

A

amygdala of limbic system, can communicate with hypothalamus (physiologic) and prefrontal cortex (decision making)

87
Q

hippocampus

A

structure that plays role in forming memories

88
Q

appraisal

A

important for determining if an event will be perceived as stressful for an individual, can be motivators or detractors

89
Q

types of stressors

A
  1. catastrophes - unpredicatable large scale events
  2. life changes
  3. daily hassles
90
Q

spinal cord functions

A

information integration and processing, simple spinal reflexes, primitive processes

91
Q

parts of the hindbrain

A

medulla - regulates vital autonomic functions, relays to other areas
pons - connection point between brain stem and cerebellum, movement, balance, and antigravity posture
cerebellum - complex movements are coordinated

92
Q

parts of the midbrain

A

contains relay for visual and auditory information and much of the reticular activating system

93
Q

psychoanalytic perspective

A

personality, Freud, personality is shaped by a person’s unconscious thoughts, feelings and memories, from past experiences with early caregivers

death instinct and life instinct

94
Q

humanistic perspective

A

personality, Carl Rogers, more focused on healthy development, humans are innately good and have free will and move towards human potential (self-actualization)

95
Q

behaviorist perspective

A

personality, learned behavior based on a persons environment, is deterministic, all actions are already planned out, all dependent on conditioning

96
Q

social cognitive perspective

A

reciprocal interaction among behavioral, cognitive and enviornmental factors, learn through classical conditioning and observation, self efficacy beleifs and situational influences

97
Q

trait perspective

A

measuring similarities and differences between inherent traits, surface and source traits, Raymond Cattell, use of personality tests

98
Q

Biological perspective

A

based on inheritable traits and brain structure, Hans-Eysenck = extroversion from reticular formation, neurotosicsm from limbic system
Jeffrey Alan Gray

99
Q

person-situation controversy

A

degree to which a persons reaction is due to trait or state

100
Q

rates of pyschological disorders

A

26% of adults, 6% are serious

101
Q

anxiety disorders

A

emotional state of unpleasant physical and mental arousal, panic, phobia, PTSD, stress, OCD

102
Q

somatic symptom and related disorders

A

physical symptoms that may mimic disease, conversion disorder (sensoimotor), pain disorder, somatization disorder, body dysmorphic disorder, hypochondriasis

103
Q

schizophrenia

A

out of touch with reality, psychosis for one month, less extreme symptoms for 6 months can be positive (added) or negative (taken away)

104
Q

types of schizophrenia

A

paranoid type - hallucinations or delusions
disorganized type - flat or innappropriate affect, disorganized speech/behavior
catatonic type - retarded or peculiar behviors
undifferentiated or residual - other

105
Q

depressive disorder

A

feel worse than ever every day for two weeks, can not be within two months of bereavement

106
Q

types of bipolar

A

type 1 - a manic or mixed episode

type 2 - manic phase is less extreme

107
Q

dissociative disorder

A

thoughts feelings and perceptions are separated from conscious awareness and control, amnesia, fugue, identity disorder and depersonalization

108
Q

personality disorder

A

enduring rigid set of personality traits that deviates from cultural norms, impairs functioning and causes distress, three different subclasses

109
Q

biologic basis of schizophrenia

A

dopamine hypothesis - dopamine is hyperactive, overabundance of dopamine and receptor

also hypofunctioning of frontal lobe

110
Q

biologic basis of alzheimers

A

neuritic plaques of beta amyloid and neurofibrillary tangles, hippocampus may be involved

111
Q

biological basis of parkinsons

A

death of cells that generate dopamine in basal ganglia and substantia nigra, give L-dopa for treatment

112
Q

factors that influence motivation

A
  1. instinct
  2. drive/negative feedback - maintain homeostasis
  3. arousal - senses
  4. needs - higher aspirations
113
Q

drive reduction theory

A

physiologic needs create aroused state that results in drive reducing behaviors

114
Q

incentive theory

A

external stimuli that induce or discourage certain behaviors, can have positive or negative incentives

115
Q

Maslows hierarchy of needs

A

can only meet higher needs when lower needs are met, physiologic - safety - love - esteem - self

116
Q

three components of attitude

A

affect, behavior tendencies and cognition

117
Q

role playing

A

playing the role of someone else makes you more likely to adopt that attitude and behavior

118
Q

public declaration

A

declaring something publicly means you are more likely to hold onto the belief more strongly

119
Q

foot in the door

A

getting someone to agree to something small makes them more likely to agree to something larger

120
Q

cognitive dissonance

A

when we feel tension when our attitudes don’t match our behaviors, if there is not enough justification for the dissonance

121
Q

social facilitation

A

perform simple tasks better in front of others, but worse if the tasks are difficult, depends on the dominant response of the individual

122
Q

deindividuation

A

high degree of arousal and low sense of responsibility, like in war or riots, depends on group size, anonymity and arousing activities

123
Q

bystander effect

A

a person is less likely to offer help when in the presence of other bystanders

124
Q

social loafing

A

tendency for people to exert less effort when they are being evaluated as a group rather than as individuals

125
Q

group polarization

A

the entire group tends toward more extreme versions of the average views

126
Q

groupthink

A

less likeihood of individuals to go against the group, to rock the boat

127
Q

ways behavior may be motivated by social influence

A

compliance, identification, internalization

128
Q

two means of social control

A
  1. informal means of control - internalization of norms and values by socialization
  2. formal means of control - external sanctions put in place by the government
129
Q

sanctions

A

rewards and punishments for behaviors that are in accord with or against norms

130
Q

mores

A

norms that are highly important for the benefit of society and are strictly enforced, like animal abuse and treason

131
Q

folkways

A

less important norms but shape everyday behavior, like styles of dress or ways of greeting

132
Q

anomie

A

a condition where society provides little moral guidance to individuals, breakdown of bonds between individuals and society

133
Q

differential association theory

A

deviance, environment plays major role in deciding which norms people violate, people learn criminal behavior by interactions with others

134
Q

labelling theory

A

deviance, type of symbolic interaction, behaviors are only deviant when they are labelled that way by society, hard to change

135
Q

strain theory

A

social structures may put pressure on individuals to commit crime, poor people may sell drugs

136
Q

agents of socialization

A

how we learn to adapt to society

family, school, peer groups, workplace, religion, government, mass media, technology

137
Q

unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response

A

food for a dog and the dog salivating, the stimulus leads to the response

138
Q

conditioned stimulus and conditioned response

A

a previously neutral stimulus becomes conditioned when it is associated with an unconditioned stimulus, leading to a response

ringing a bell and a dog salivates

139
Q

acquisition

A

learning a conditioned response

140
Q

extinction

A

when stimuli and response are no longer paired after some time

141
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

when extinct stimulus and response is regained

142
Q

generalization

A

when another stimuli ilicits the same response, another sound makes the dog salivate

143
Q

discrimination (conditioning)

A

when another stimulus is differentiated from the conditioned stimulus

144
Q

reinforcement vs punishment

A

reinforcement encourages behavior, punishment discourages behavior

145
Q

positive vs negative conditioning

A

positive adds something negative takes something away

146
Q

shaping

A

learning a behavior by adding pieces of the puzzle, like encouraging a child to walk

147
Q

escape and avoidance

A

escape - an individual learns how to get away from an aversive stimulus by engaging in a behavior, a child throwing a tantrum to not eat veggies

avoidance - a learned behavior to make sure an adverse stimulus is not presented, faking illness to not eat veggies

148
Q

instinctive drift

A

a tendency for animals to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response

149
Q

modeling

A

observer sees a behavior being formed and they imitate it later on

150
Q

mirror neurons

A

fire when a task is performed or when a task is observed, may be involved in vicarious emotions

151
Q

elaboration likelihood model

A

explains when people will be persuaded, depends on:

  1. complexity of message
  2. source of message
  3. target characteristics

routes:

  1. central route - persuaded by message
  2. peripheral route - persuaded by outside factors

If target is paying attention, follow central route and will have longer lasting effects, otherwise peripheral route

152
Q

diathesis stress model

A

biological predispositions interact with environment to lead to disease

153
Q

self schemas

A

beliefs that a person has about him or herself

154
Q

personal vs social identity

A 
person = smart, funny, ones own sense of personal attributes
social = white, american, student, how you fit within society
155
Q

self reference effect

A

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves, a person who thinks they are smart doing poorly on an exam conflicts with this

156
Q

self efficacy

A

belief in one’s own competence and effectiveness

157
Q

locus of control

A

internal locus of control means that you believe you are the power to change, external locus of control means its out of your hands

158
Q

learned helplessness

A

the belief that you cant change anything, that there is an external locus of control

159
Q

looking glass self

A

person’s sense of self develops from interpersonal interactions with others in society and perceptions of others, people shaped their self concept based on how they believe others percieve them

160
Q

reference group

A

a group that you compare yourself to, like a group studying for the MCAT

161
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

underestimate the impact of the situation and think it depends more on the individuals, people act the way they are

162
Q

illusory correlation

A

created between a group of people and a characteristic based on unique cases

163
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy

A

you believe something, you act a certain way, the person ends up behaving in that way

164
Q

ethnocentrism

A

favoritism for one’s in group over out-groups, judge other people by how they live

165
Q

cultural relativism

A

judging another culture based on its own standards, judging a practice in the context of another culture’s values, accepting child labor laws in India

166
Q

stereotype threat

A

a self fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, doing worse on a math exam when you are told men are worse at math

167
Q

ascribed status

A

assigned to a person by society regardless of the person’s own efforts, like gender and race

168
Q

achieved status

A

status obtained through an individual’s effort, parent or democrat

169
Q

role conflict

A

when there is a conflict in society’s expectations for multiple statuses help by the same person, gay priest or male nurse

170
Q

role strain

A

single status results in conflicting expectations, too gay or not gay enough

171
Q

utilitarian vs normative organizations

A

getting paid vs having relevant goals

172
Q

formal organization

A

businesses, governments, religious groups

173
Q

ideal bureaucracy

A

Max Weber

  1. formal hierarchy
  2. management by rules
  3. organization by function specialty
  4. up focused or in focused
  5. purposely impersonal - treat all the same
  6. employment by technical quals
174
Q

iron law of oligarchy

A

all organizations, no matter how they start, will develop into oligarchic tendencies, making true democracy impossible

175
Q

mcdonaldization

A

organizations are becoming more like fast food restaurants

176
Q

impression management

A

process by which people attempt to manage their own image by influencing the perceptions of others

177
Q

dramaturgical perspective

A

stems from symbolic interactionism, we imagine ourselves playing certain roles when interacting with others, identities are not stable but dependent on interactions with others

178
Q

front stage/back stage

A

dramaturgical perspective, front stage we play a role to present ourselves in a certain way, back stage we let our guard down and be ourselves

179
Q

most powerful predictor of friendship

A

proximity

180
Q

foraging behavior

A

animals spend a lot of energy looking for food so they spend a lot of time learning how to find food from older members

181
Q

inclusive fitness

A

organism is defined by the number of offspring, support and how they support others, favors altruism

MCAT (5 decks)

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