Psychology - Paper 1 - Attachment Flashcards
Attachment
an emotional relationship between two people in which each seeks closeness and feels more secure when in the presence of the attachment figure
Why do we form attachments?
infants are physically helpless, they have an innate ability to seek interactions with other individuals. These interactions offer short term security, in the long term the infants first relationship acts as a template for later relationships, gives them a model of how to behave
Distress
both the infant and caregiver feel distressed when separated
Proximity
infants seek proximity- being close to the caregiver at all times
Reciprocity
babies move in rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns as people do when they have a conversation. Reciprocity means two way or something that it mutual, infant and caregiver are both active contributors in the interaction and are responding to each others
Secure-base behaviour
the infant is generally always aware of the caregiver and makes frequent contact, the caregiver acts as a safe base
Interactional Synchrony
relates to the timing and pattern of interaction, the infant and caregiver mirror each others behaviour. The interaction is co-ordinated and can include infant and caregiver mirroring each others behaviour and emotion
Evaluation of Meltzoff and Moore
+research support= Isabella et al- observed 30 mothers with their infants assessing their level of synchrony and attachment. The results show the better the synchrony the better quality attachment they had= importance of interactional synchrony in forming a good quality attachment
+reliability= high reliability due to inter-rater/observer reliability- as all the tapes were watched twice by independent observers and all scores higher than 0.92= highly reliable findings
- purpose of interactional synchrony= no explanation was found- Feldman said that we cannot understand the purpose of these interactions, these could mean nothing and have no overall purpose= it is ambiguous
Meltzoff and Moore Study
Aim: the investigate interactions between caregiver and infant using controlled observations
Method: selected 4 different stimuli (3 faces and a gesture) and observed the behaviour of infants response - watched and recorded on tape (seen in real time, frame by frame and slo mo). the videos then judged by independent observers who had knowledge of what the infants just saw, had to note all head and tongue movements. (mouth opening, tongue protrusion, termination of mouth/tongue), a dummy was put in front of the infants mouth during display to prevent any response, following the display the dummy was removed and expression filmed
Findings: each observer scored the tapes twice- all scores greater than 0.92
Conclusion: there is an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model
Shaffer and Emerson Study
Aim: to assess whether there was a pattern of attachment formation that was common to all infants and identify distinct stages
Procedure: longitudinal study on 60 newborns and mothers from w/c area in Glasglow, monthly interviews in first year and another at 18 months- studied in their own home + interactions observed and carers interviewed - evidence for attachment= separation anxiety and stranger anxiety
Results: different aspects of attachment developed at different ages, strongly attached infants had mothers who responded to their needs quickly - more opportunity for attachment, weakly attached infants had mothers who responded less quickly - less opporunity for attachment
Conclusion: There is a pattern of attachment common to all infants which is biologically controlled. Attachments were most likely to be formed with those who responded accurately to the signals NOT who they spent most time with= sensitive responsiveness
multiple attachments are normal and similar quality- opposes Bowlby’s idea that attachments are a hierarchy of a prime and minor attachments
Schaffer and Emerson’s Stages of attachment- Stage 1
ASOCIAL- (0-8 weeks): smiling, crying, no directed behaviour towards a particular figure
Schaffer and Emerson’s Stages of attachment- Stage 2
INDISCRIMINATE ATTACHMENT- (2-7 months): attention sought from different people and recognise familiar faces
Schaffer and Emerson’s Stages of attachment- Stage 3
SPECIFIC ATTACHMENTS- (7-12 months): strong attachments to one individual, shows separation anxiety
Schaffer and Emerson’s Stages of attachment- Stage 4
MULTIPLE ATTACHMENTS- (1 year +): attachments are developed to other people, uses familiar adults as a secure base
Evaluation of Schaffer and Emerson
+longitudinal study= high internal validity
+triangulation= a variety of research methods to produce findings- high in reliability
+ecological validity- observed in their own homes in everyday situations- gave findings face validity and high in mundane realism
-self report data= unreliable as parents would want to appear as if they have a good attachment to their child (social desirability bias)
-era dependent= carried out in 60’s - outdated as society and the ways children were raised have changed due to changes in position of different genders
-contradicting evidence= Van Ijzendorm and Kroonenberg saw multiple attachments from birth as normal
-limited sample= all w/c mothers from Glasglow- cannot generalise to population as not representative
Multiple attachments
attachment is extended to other adults who regularly spend time with the child (grandparents, siblings)
Schaffer and Emerson on multiple attachments
- first attachment formed at 7 months
- approx one month later secondary attachments are formed
- additional attachments are formed in the months following the 4th stage (observed that 31% of infants displayed 5 or more attachments at 18 months)
Evaluation:
- inconsistent findings as fathers can be primary attachments, mothers and fathers have distinct roles and behave differently
Field on multiple attachments
- fathers can be nurturing attachments figures, key to attachment is rate of responsiveness and not the gender of the parent
Evaluation:
- cultural gender roles= linked to womens higher level of oestrogen- more nurturing= women could be biologically predisposed to become the primary attachment figure
Grossman on multiple attachments
-longitudinal study on 44 families comparing the roles of mothers and fathers contribution to attachment at 6, 10 and 16
-quality of mothers attachment was related to the quality of attachment during adolescence
attachment with fathers was not- fathers play quality related to the attachment in adolescence
Evaluation:
- children who grow up in single parent households or same sex do not develop any differently suggesting fathers secondary role is not important
Use of animal studies
-used to look at the early formation of bonds between non-human parents and their offspring
-this is of interest because attachment-like behaviour is common to a range of species and so animal studies can help us understand attachment in humans
Ethology
scientific and objective study of animal behaviour usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions and viewing behaviour an an evolutionary adaptive trait
Evaluation of Lorenz
+his findings on imprinting have influenced our understanding on human attachments
+Gulton et al= research support- found that chickens imprinted on yellow gloves would try to mate with them as adults
-generalised findings of birds to humans- difference in species
- not a permanent idea- if mating would not work they would mate with others of their own species
Imprinting
a rapid learning process by which a newborn or very young animal establishes a behaviour pattern of recognition and attraction towards other animals of its own kind as well as to specific individuals of its species such as its parents or to a substitute for these
Critical Period
a specific stage in animal and human development during which certain types of behaviour normally are shaped and molded for life
Sexual Imprinting
the idea that an animal starts developing sexual preferences based on the species they are imprinted on rather than their own species if different
Lorenz’s study
Aim: investigate the mechanisms of imprinting where the youngsters form and follow an attachment to the first large moving object they meet
Method: used goslings split into 2 groups, one hatched naturally and the other in an incubator, behaviour following was recorded. Lorenz marked all goslings and placed them under a box, box removed and behaviour recorded again
Findings: after birth the naturally hatched followed their mother and the incubators followed Lorenz, when released from the box the naturally born went to their mother and the incubator born went to lorenz = no bond with mother which was irreversible, takes place in a brief period of 4-24hrs after birth which is the critical period. the incubator hatched imprinted on humans= try and mate wiht humans
Conclusion: imprinting is a form of attachment exhibited mainly by birds
Harlow’s study
Aim: to test learning theory by comparing attachment in baby monkeys given a wire surrogate mother producing milk with those given a soft toweling mother producing no milk
Procedure: 16 monkeys used, 4 conditions
-wire monkey with milk and towel with no milk
-wire monkey with no milk and towel with milk
-wire with milk
-towel with milk
they monkeys were frightened to test which mother they preferred during stress and a larger cage was used to test the monkeys level of exploration
Findings: preferred contact with toweling mother regardless if she produced milk- would stretch to wire to get milk while holding onto towel
monkeys with only wire mother had diarrhoea a sign of stress
when frightened would cling to towel mother when she was available
in larger cage, monkeys with towel mothers explored more and visited their mother more often
Conclusion: monkeys have an innate unlearned need for contact comfort= attachment concerns emotional security more than food
Evaluation of Harlow
+ethical issues are justified as it gives us an insight into attachment and shows us the importance of emotional care
+profound effect on mother infant relations- attachment develops through contact comfort
+shows the importance of early relationships for later social development including the ability to hold down adult relations and successfully rear children
+helps social workers understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse so they can intervene (Practical application)
-confounding variables- the two stimulus objects varied in another way than just being covered in cloth or not- heads were different
-ethical issues: psychological harm later on with developing attachments
-caused a state of anxiety in female monkeys- implications when they became parents as they would harm their children
Learning theories
behaviourists suggest that all babies are born a blank slate- all behaviour is learnt
Classical Conditioning
refers to association, a new born cries because it is hungry and the parent will respond with milk, after crying a few more times and being fed by the parent, the child will associate the parent with food
Process of classical conditioning
-pavlov dog study
- pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
- bell = unconditioned stimulus
- food = neutral stimulus
- salivating = unconditioned response
Process of operant conditioning
-mother rewards baby through feeding- associates the mother with the reward and repeats any action that brings her close= food brings the feeling of pleasure (reward)
-food is the primary reinforcer- by removing discomfort it reinforces the behaviour
-food only comes with the mother so the mother is the secondary reinforcer even without food, the mother is associated with comfort and brings feelings of pleasure
-the baby will repeat any action which brings the mother close
Operant conditioning
refers to learning via reward- a new born will cry for hunger and the parent will respond with milk- positive reinforcement by being fed
Evaluation of learning theory
+supporting evidence from Pavlov’s Dogs and Skinner’s Rats
-reductionist- simplifies human behaviour to responding - other factors involved
-Schaffer and Emerson- attachment not dependent on who fed or clothed the baby it was dependent on who was with the child and most responsive
-ignores reciprocity and interactional synchrony
-counter evidence from other animal studies eg Harlow and Lorenz
Evolution
natural selection of behavioural and physical characteristics which support the survival of species
we have adapted to form attachments in order to survive
Maternal deprivation
if failed to form an attachment with the mother the child may experience emotional maladjustment in the future
Adaptive
attachments are adaptive and give our species an ‘adaptive advantage’ making us more likely to survive
Critical Period/ Sensitive Period
when attachment is needed to form within 3 months or up to 2 years
Social releasers
behaviour the child does to attract the attention of an adult
Monotrophy
attachment with one particular caregiver- this is different and more important, the more time spent with the primary attachment figure the better
Internal Working Model
template for future relationships
Support for adaptive
Lorenz- found goslings imprinted onto the first person that they saw during their critical period- adaptive and would aid their survival
Support for social releasers
Brazleton- the importance of interaction between caregiver and child
Support for Critical Period
Lorenz/Harlow- attachment happens in the first 24hrs- damaging consequences if attachment doesn’t take place
Support for monotropy
Schaffer and Emerson- most babies do attach to one person at first
HOWEVER- a significant minority appear to form multiple attachments at the same time
Support for internal working model
Bailey- study on 99 mothers and saw that their own attachments impacted their parenting
Evaluation of Bowlby’s theory
+research support-Lorenz and Harlow= found importance of mother
+Support for working model- Bailey et al= interviews on 99 mothers and observations, relationship between their mothers and how they parent
+Support for social releasers- Brazleton= observed mother and baby interactions- when mother ignored the baby it became distressed and motionless- supports Bowlby ideas on the significance of infant social behaviour in gaining attention of caregiver
-overlooked the importance of attachment to fathers and siblings
-suggested that attachment was critical for survival= first attachments don’t form until 3 months which is late as a protective mechanism
-not all negative attachments as a child reflect the relationships later on- may want to change what they experienced
-first attachment is not unique- just one of many that will form
Strange Situation
developed by Mary Ainsworth- the aim was to be able to observe key attachment behaviours as a means of assessing the quality of a child’s attachment to a caregiver
Strange Situation procedure
covert lab experiment- 1 way glass, scoring behaviour through time sampling and rating scales
1) child encouraged to explore in the playroom- looking at exploration and secure base
2) a stranger comes in and tries to interact with the child- tests stranger anxiety
3) the caregiver leaves the child and stranger together- tests separation and stranger anxiety
4) the caregiver returns and stranger leaves- tests reunion behaviour/exploration and safe base
5) the caregiver leaves the child alone- separation anxiety
6) the stranger returns- stranger anxiety
7) the caregiver returns- tests reuinion behaviour
What behaviours are judged in Strange Situation?
- proximity seeking
- exploration and safe base behaviour
- stranger anxiety
- separation anxiety
- response on reunion
Findings of Strange Situation
majority of babies have a secure attachment- the attachment type depended on how quickly and sensitively the mother responded
Secure attachment
TYPE B (60-75%)
- explores happily but regularly goes back to caregiver
- shows moderate separation and stranger anxiety
- requires and accepts comfort on return
Insecure avoidant
TYPE A (20-25%)
- explores freely but doesn’t seek proximity or shows secure base
- little or no stranger or separation anxiety
- makes little or no fuss when caregiver returns
Insecure resistant
TYPE C (3%)
- seek greater proximity and explores less
- huge separation and stranger distress
- resists comfort when reunited
Evaluation of Strange Situation
+ Validity= attachment type is a strong predictor of later development- Kikkinos found that insecure resistant attachment was associated with adult mental health- high in validity as explains subsequent outcomes
+ reliable- takes place in a lab which is a controlled environment and easy to observe and classify- has good inter-rater reliability which high agreement in the study, Bick et al looked at the inter-observer reliability and found 95% agreements
- can be psychological harm to the child through the anxiety caused
- cannot generalise to all parents and children as only done on mothers and a small selected sample
- culture bound- different cultures around the world raise children differently and they would therefore respond differently, Japanese children are rarely away from their mothers and experience high separation anxiety= IMPOSED ETIC as created in one culture and applied to another
- Kagan- individual differences due to genetics
- Main and Soloman= children who do not fit into these categories- disorganised
Cultural Variations
the difference in norms and values that exist between different people in different groups
Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg Study
Aim: compare patterns of attachment type both between and within cultures
Procedure: meta analysis- reviewed 32 studies around the world for strange situation involving 8 countries and 1900 children (15 studies in USA)
Findings: world wide pattern similar to Ainsworth’s - Type A more common in western europe
- Type C more common in Israel and Japan
Conclusion: although there were variations between cultures they noticed that there were also huge variations within the same country
Conclusions on Cultural Variations
- large variation in types of attachment across the world
- more insecure attachments in Eastern countries
- starting to see in increase in insecure attachments in Western countries- mothers are working longer hours and more common use of professional childcare
Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation
explains what happens if a child does not form/ the attachment between the child and mother is broken. He believes that disruption to this bond can result in serious and permanent damage to a child’s physical, mental and emotional health
Separation
child is not in the presence of the caregiver - not damaging if short term
Deprivation
an attachment forms but is then discontinued due to prolonged separation, very frequent separation also counts as deprivation
Privation
a child who has no attachment
The Critical Period
Bowlby considered the first 30 months of life as a critical period where infants should have continuous unbroken relations with one person (monotrophy)
Effects of development
Intellectual Development- deprivation can lead to an abnormally low IQ, Goldfarb found a lower IQ in children who had remained in institutions as opposed to those in foster care
Emotional Development- won’t be effective, some may become affectionless psychopaths (inability to show affection or concern for others)
44 Thieves Study
Aim: to find a link between affectionless psychopathy and maternal deprivation
Procedure: between 1936 and 39 an opportunity sample of 88 children were selected from a clinic, 44 were thieves and 44 had emotional issues, each had their IQ tested and parents interviewed to see details of early life- done separately by a social worker and psychologist, notes compared on interview
Findings: some had early and prolonged separation, 32% of thieves were affectionless psychopaths- 86% of them had a long period of maternal separation before 5- spent most of their early years in residential homes or hospitals often not visited by families
Conclusion: maternal separation/deprivation in early years causes permanent emotional damage (affectionless psychopaths)
Evaluation of Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation
+ Harlow and Harlow= the social maladjustment of isolated monkeys shows evidence of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory
+ Levy et al= showed that separating baby rats from mothers for as little as one day had a perminant affect on social development
- deprivation effects in 6 month old isolated monkeys can be overcome by placing them with 3 month old normally reared monkeys
- Koluchovoi reported the case of 4 boys from Czechwho were isolated from 18m-7yrs but were adopted and fully recovered
- Bowlby drew up evidence about orphanised children during WW2 who were often traumatised and had poor aftercare
- Lewis replicated the 44 thieves study on a larger scale and found that prolonged separation from the mother did not lead to criminality
- problem with definition- Rutter= when Bowlby talked of deprivation he was confused with concepts of deprivation and privation
Effects of Institutionalisation
Physical: smaller figure, lack of stimulation
Intellectual: smaller and less stimulated brain, limited speech, if adopted before 6 months becomes caught up cognitively by age 4
Poor Parenting: no template of how to be looked after, example of Harlow’s monkeys
Disinhibited attachment: typical effect of spending time in an institution, equally friendly to strangers and people they know
Mental Retardation: if adopted before 6m they could catch up with other children and damage to intellectual development can be recovered, after 6m there is long term effects on intellectual development
Hazan ans Shaver
Procedure: analysed 620 replies to a love quiz printed in Rocky road times, it had 3 sections looking at the current relation of the person, love experiences, attachment type
Findings: secure adults- 56%= good and lasting relations, less likely to be divorced, trust, ideas that love is enduring
Insecure avoidant- 25%= jealousy, fear of intimacy
Insecure Resistant- 19%= most likely to be divorced, found relationships less easy and said true love is rare
Conclusion: attachment type has a direct impact on future romantic relationships
