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A- LEVEL Psychology & Sociology > Psychology - Approaches > Flashcards

Psychology - Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Learning through association

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2
Q

Operant conditioning

A

Learning through consequences

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3
Q

Classical conditioning - Study

A

Pavlov
dog - lab experiment
unconditioned stimulus- food
unconditioned response- salivation
neutral stimulus- bell
association between the two created aconditioned response

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4
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Receiving a reward

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5
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Occurs when performing an action stops something unpleasant happening

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6
Q

Operant conditioning - Study positive

A

Skinner
rat placed in a cage
if lever was puller get food pellet- positive reinforcement
rats learned this behaviour after a few attempts

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7
Q

What did Skinners study show?

A

Positive/ negative reinforcement increases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated

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8
Q

Operant conditioning -Study negative

A

Skinner
rat placed in a cage rigged with elect plates at the bottom
if rat hit lever the electrical current will stop - negative reinforcement
rat learned to go straight to the lever for the electrical current to turn off.

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9
Q

Application of behaviourism

A

Behaviourism has increased our understanding of the causes of phobias and attatchment
given a rise in therapies such as systematic desensitisation and token economy

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10
Q

Behaviourism - AO3 - phobias

A

Watson and Rayner showed that phobias can be learned through classical conditioning - little albert

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11
Q

AO3 - behaviourism - Methods

A

Scientific- lab experiment
reliable and can be replicated
high control of extraneous variables

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12
Q

AO3 - behaviourism - biological factors

A

ignores the role of neurotransmitters
e.g low level of serotonin can rise depression
high level of dopamine is involved in OCD

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13
Q

Issues and debates - Skinner

A

Skinner says that free will is an illusion and our behaviour is based on previous conditioning

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14
Q

Social learning theory

A

learned through experience - through observation and imitation of others

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15
Q

Mediational process

A

Attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation

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16
Q

Attention

A

the individual needs to pay attention to the behaviour and its consequences and form a mental representation of the behaviour

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17
Q

Retention

A

storing the observed behaviour in LTM where it can stay for a long period of time, imitation is not always immediate

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18
Q

Reproduction

A

the individual must be able to reproduce the observed behaviour - ability and skill

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19
Q

Motivation

A

individual must expect to receive the same positive reinforcement for imitating the observed behaviour

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20
Q

Imitation occurs when…

A

if the model is positively reinforced - vicarious reinforcement
if we identity with the model

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21
Q

Bobo doll study - Bandura et al - aims

A

conduct a controlled experiment to investigated if social behaviour can be learned through observation and imitation

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22
Q

Bobo doll study - Bandura et al - sample

A

36 boys and 36 girls aged between 3-6

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23
Q

Bobo doll study - Bandura et al - groups

A

Group 1 -12 boys 12 girls shown a model hitting the doll with a hammer and shouting at the doll
Group 2 - 12 boys 12 girls shown an non-aggressive model
Group 3 - 12 boys 12 girls control group not shown a model
children then taken to a room and told not to play with the toys - aggression arousal

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24
Q

Bobo doll study - Bandura et al - Results

A

the children who observed the aggressive role model were more aggressive than the children from the other two groups.
Group 1 imitated specific acts that were displayed by the model.
Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than the girls.
There was no difference in verbal aggression between girls and boys.

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25
Q

Bobo doll study - Bandura et al - conclusion

A

This supports SLT as it shows that children imitate the behaviour of role models even if the behaviour is aggressive.

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26
Q

Bandura and Walter - experiment - sample

A

All children were shown an aggressive role model just diiferent consequences
Group 1 - the model was praised
Group 2 - the model was punished
Group 3 - no consequences

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27
Q

Bandura and Walter - experiment - results

A

when left on their own group 1 showed th emost aggression followed by group 3, group 2 was the least aggressive

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28
Q

Bandura and Walter - experiment - conclusion

A

This shows that imitation is more likely to occur when the role model is positively reinforced, demonstrating the importance of vicarious reinforcement

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29
Q

SLT - application

A

Explains the influence of media on behaviour
James Bulger murder
The perpetrators were children themselves and claimed they were influence by the film Child Play 3
However these children had bad role models - could have witnesses real- life violence and social deprivation

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30
Q

SLT - Evaluation

A

supported by two studies - badura et al and bandura and walter
Can be explained the difference between behaviour different cultures.
A more complete explanation of human behaviour than conditioning as it takes in to account of cognitive factors in learning, it does not take in to account of free will and moral values.

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31
Q

Cognitive approach

A

Focused on how our mental processes affect our behaviour

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32
Q

Cognitive psychology

A

Influenced by developments in computer science and analogies are often made between how a computer works and how we process information

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33
Q

Computer analogy

A

How the brain inputs, stores and retreives information - multi-store model of memory

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33
Q

Schemas

A

A mental framework of beliefs and expectations developed from experience (packet of information) helps us organise and interpret information

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34
Q

Weakness of schemas

A

It can lead to distortion of information as there is too much environment stimuli
E.G. eye witness testimony, and optical illusions

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35
Q

Cognitive neuroscience

A

Scientific study of brain structures on mental processes

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36
Q

Neuroscience

A

Aims to find out how brain structures influence the way we process information and map mental cognitive fuctions to specific areas of the brain

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37
Q

Example of brain mapping

A

Braver et al 1997 found that when their participants were performing activities involving central executive while being scanned, the pre-frontal cortex showed greater activity. Suggests that the central executive is situated in the pre-frontal cortex.

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38
Q

Laboratory experiments

A

These are the preferred method of investigation of the cognitive approach i.e. Loftus and Palmer (1974) – Car Crash Study. In these experiments, the extraneous variables are tightly controlled so they can be replicated, but they lack ecological validity as they take place in artificial environments, and the tasks are also artificial.

39
Q

Case studies- cognitive approach

A

These are used to study rare conditions which provide insight into the working of some mental processes, i.e., Clive Wearing, HM.

Although case studies deal with a very small sample so the results cannot be generalized to the wider population as they are influenced by individual characteristics, they allow us to study cases that could not be produced experimentally because of ethical and practical reasons.

40
Q

Brain imaging

A

fMRI and Pet scans are used to map areas of the brain to cognitive function because of the processing of information by centers in the brain to be seen directly. Such processing causes the area of the brain involved to increase metabolism and “light up” on the scan. i.e. Braver et al. (1997).

41
Q

Applications (AO3) - cognitive approach

A

The study of memory has led to the development of cognitive interviews, which has decreased the inaccuracy of eyewitness memory; this should lead to a decrease in wrongful convictions.
It also helped us understand the causes of depression, and the approach also proposes a therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, which has shown to be effective for a range of mental disorders and, unlike drugs, has no side effects.

42
Q

Evaluation (AO3) - cognitive approach

A

For example, Baddeley (1966) used lists of words to find out the encoding used by LTM. However, these words had no meaning to the participants, so the way they used their memory in this task was probably very different than they would have done if the words had meaning for them. This is a weakness as the theories might not explain how memory really works outside the laboratory.The cognitive approach uses a very scientific method, mainly lab experiments. These are controlled and replicable, so the results are reliable; however, they lack ecological validity because of the artificiality of the tasks and environment, so they might not reflect the way people process information in their everyday life.

43
Q

The influence of genes

A

Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next via genes.

44
Q

Genotype

A

is the genetic code that is written in the DNA, i.e., the genetic makeup of an individual (genes present in each of your cells).

45
Q

Phenotype

A

the physical representation that results from the individual’s genotype. For example, the genetic characteristics expressed by an individual (whether they have blue eyes or brown eyes).

46
Q

Evolution (AO1) - biological approach

A

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection. He argued that genetically determined characteristics or behavior that enhance our chances of survival and reproduction would be passed on to the next generation and become more common in a population, whereas traits that do not enhance survival will gradually disappear.

Evolutionary psychology is an approach that attempts to explain mental and psychological traits, i.e., as memory and perception, as adaptations that increase our chances of survival. An example of the behavior of evolutionary explanation is Bowlby’s theory of attachment.Evolution (AO1)

47
Q

Applications (AO3) - biological approach

A

The understanding of the role of neurotransmitters has led to the development of drugs that are effective in the treatment of mental disorders such as schizophrenia and depression.
This enables many of the sufferers to lead fairly normal lives.
However, these drugs are not effective for all patients, and they can have serious side effects. They do not cure the disorders, and if the patients stop taking the drug, the symptoms reappear.

48
Q

Evaluation (AO3) - biological approach

A

It uses scientific research methods such as EEGs, fMRI and PET scans, and twin studies. These produce objective data which can be replicated and peer-reviewed.
Also, we usually do not find a 100% concordance rate in MZ twins for mental disorders, which indicates that environmental and social factors must be involved in the development of these disorders.

49
Q

Id

A

it is the biological part (instincts and drives) of the personality. It is present at birth. The Id is motivated by the pleasure principle; it demands instant gratification of its needs.

50
Q

Ego

A

develops from 1 – 3 years. It is motivated by the reality principle. It mediates the conflicts between the ID and superego. It uses defense mechanisms to achieve this.

51
Q

Super Ego

A

develops from 3 – 5 years. It is motivated by the morality principle. It punishes the ego with guilt for “wrongdoing.”

51
Q

The conscious:

A

this is the part we are aware of and can access without any effort. It contains part of the ego.

52
Q

The preconscious

A

this is a part of the mind that we cannot access without effort. It contains the ego and some of the superego.

53
Q

The unconscious

A

this part of the mind cannot be accessed without the help of a trained psychoanalyst. It contains the superego and the Id.

54
Q

Repression

A

Is used by the ego to keep disturbing memories out of the conscious mind and in the unconscious mind where they cannot be accessed, e.g., sexual or aggressive urges or painful childhood memories.

55
Q

Displacement

A

An impulse may be redirected from its original target onto a more acceptable one, e.g., being angry with your father and shouting at your little sister.

56
Q

Denial

A

the existence of unpleasant internal or external realities is denied and kept out of conscious awareness, e.g., having lost your job, and yet you go to work every day.

57
Q

Oral (0-1year)

A

Mouth – sucking, swallowing, etc.
OUTCOME-
If forceful feeding, deprivation, or early weaning occur, then fixation could lead to oral activities (e.g., smoking), dependency, and aggression.

58
Q

Anal (1-3 years)

A

The anus – withholding or expelling feces.
OUTCOME-
If toilet training is too harsh or too lax, then fixation could lead to obsessiveness, tidiness, meanness, or to untidiness and generosity.

59
Q

Phallic (3-5 years)

A

The penis or clitoris – masturbation.
OUTCOME-
If an abnormal family set-up leads to an unusual relationship with the mother/father, then fixation could lead to Vanity, self-obsession, sexual anxiety, inadequacy, Inferiority, envy,

60
Q

Latent (5-puberty)

A

Sexual drives are repressed.
OUTCOME-
Fixation does not happen at this stage.

61
Q

Genital (puberty-death)

A

The genitals. The adult derives pleasure from masturbation and sexual intercourse.
OUTCOME-
Fixation at this stage should occur in a mentally healthy adult.

62
Q

Applications (AO3) - psychodynamic approach

A

The psychodynamic approach has given rise to one of the first “talking cures, “psychoanalysis, on which many psychological therapies are now based. Psychoanalysis is rarely used now in its original form, but it is still used in a shorter version in some cases.
This approach can be used to explain mental disorders such as depression and schizophrenia, although these explanations are rarely used by mainstream psychology. One of the very influential concepts put forward by Freud is the lasting importance of childhood on later life and development.

63
Q

Evaluation (AO3) - psychodynamic approach

A

The concepts of Id, ego and superego are very abstract and difficult to test experimentally, so the evidence is obtained from case studies (Little Hans and Anna O). However, the sample used in these case studies is mainly Austrian, so it lacks population validity.
These case studies used mainly unstructured interviews, so they yielded qualitative data. The need for interpretation of the material gathered means that it is biased on the part of the researchers as they tend to interpret the data in a way that supports their theory.

64
Q

Self-actualisation

A

All people have an innate tendency towards growth and the fulfillment of their potential; they have the desire to become everything that they are capable of

65
Q

Maslow

A

people also have needs that must be met for self-actualisation to be possible. The basic needs, e.g., food and water, have to be satisfied before the higher ones.

66
Q

Rogers,

A

people could only self-actualise if they had a positive view of themselves (positive self-regard). This can only happen if they have unconditional positive regard from others – if they feel that they are valued and respected without reservation by those around them (especially their parents when they were children).

67
Q

Weakness of self actualisation

A

most people don’t perceive the positive regard of others as being unconditional. They tend to think they will only be loved and valued if they meet certain conditions of worth. These conditions of worth create incongruity within the self between the real self (how the person is) and the ideal self (how they think they should be or want to be).

68
Q

Congruence - self actualisation

A

Self-actualization is only possible if there is congruence between the way an individual sees themselves and their ideal self (the way they want to be or think they should be).

If there is a large gap between these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise that will make it impossible for self-actualisation to take place.

69
Q

Applications (AO3) - humanistic approach

A

Based on this approach, client-centered therapy aims to increase clients’ self-worth and decrease the incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self.

It is a non-directive therapy in which the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions to their difficulties in an atmosphere that is supportive and non-judgemental and that provides unconditional positive regard.

It focuses on the present rather than dwelling on the past, unlike psychoanalysis. This therapy is widely used, e.g., in health, education, and industry.

70
Q

Evaluation (AO3) - humanistic approach

A

It has given rise to a new way of looking at people’s needs; for example, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is widely used in health and social work as a framework for assessing clients’ needs.
Client-centered therapy is widely used in health, social work, and industry. This therapy has helped many people overcome difficulties they face in life, which is a significant contribution to improving people’s quality of life.
The approach uses non-scientific research methods. As its aim is to understand people’s subjectivity, it uses methods that yield qualitative data, such as unstructured interviews or participant observations. These are difficult/ impossible to replicate, and the interpretation of the data is influenced by researcher bias.

71
Q

Issues and debates (Behaviorism) AO3 - Free will Vs. determinism

A

Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learned from our environment through classical and operant conditioning. We are the sum total of our previous conditioning.

Softer determinism of the social learning approach theory recognizes an element of choice as to whether we imitate a behavior.

71
Q

Issues and debates (Cognitive) AO3 -Free will Vs. determinism

A

The position of the approach is unclear as it argues, on the one hand, that the way we process information is determined by our past experience (schemas).

On the other hand, the therapy derived from the approach (CBT) argues that we can change the way we think.

72
Q

Issues and debates (Biological) AO3 -Free will Vs. determinism

A

It is strongly determinist as it views our behavior as caused entirely by biological factors over which we have no control.

73
Q

Issues and debates (Psychodynamic) AO3 -Free will Vs. determinism

A

It is strongly determinist as it views our behavior as caused entirely by unconscious factors over which we have no control.

74
Q

Issues and debates (Humanism) AO3 -Free will Vs. determinism

A

It is the only approach that explicitly states that people have free will, but its position on this topic is somewhat incoherent as, on the one hand, it argues that people have free will but, on the other hand, it argues that our behavior is determined by the way other people treat us (whether we feel that we are valued and respected without reservation by those around us).

75
Q

Issues and debates (Behaviorism) AO3 - Nature Vs. nurture

A

Behaviorism is very much on the nurture side of the debate as it argues that our behavior is learned from the environment.

The social learning theory is also on the nurture side because it argues that we learn our behavior from role models in our environment.

The behaviorist approach proposes that apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all complex behavior is learned from the environment.

76
Q

Issues and debates (Behaviorism) AO3 - Holism Vs. reductionism

A

The behaviorist approach and social learning are reductionist; they isolate parts of complex behaviors to study.

Behaviorists take the view that all behavior, no matter how complex, can be broken down into the fundamental processes of conditioning.

77
Q

Issues and debates (Behaviorism) AO3 - Idiographic Vs. nomothetic

A

It is a nomothetic approach as it views all behavior governed by the same laws of conditioning.

However, it does account for individual differences and explains them in terms of differences in the history of conditioning.

78
Q

Issues and debates (Behaviorism) AO3 - scientific?

A

The behaviorist approach uses lab experiments that are highly controlled; therefore, they are replicable. Furthermore, it measures observable behaviors; therefore, no interpretations are required, and therefore the data is objective.

However, behaviorists use animal experiments as it assumes that humans learn in the same way as animals.

79
Q

Issues and debates (Cognitive) AO3 -Nature Vs. nurture

A

The cognitive approach takes an interactionist view of the debate as it argues that our behavior is influenced by learning and experience (nurture) but also by some of our brains’ innate capacities as information processors, e.g., language acquisition (nature).

80
Q

Issues and debates (Cognitive) AO3 -Holism Vs. reductionism

A

The cognitive approach tends to be reductionist as when studying a variable; it isolates processes such as memory from other cognitive processes. However, in our normal life, we would use many cognitive processes simultaneously, so it lacks validity.

81
Q

Issues and debates (Cognitive) AO3 -Idiographic Vs. nomothetic

A

It is a nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing theories on information processing that apply to all people.

82
Q

Issues and debates (Cognitive) AO3 -scientific?

A

The cognitive approach uses lab experiments that are highly controlled; therefore, they are replicable. However, it measures non-observable behaviors; therefore, it could be argued that it is not as scientific as the behaviorist approach

83
Q

Issues and debates (Biological) AO3 -Nature Vs. nurture

A

The biological approach is firmly on the nature side of the debate; however, it does recognize that our brain is a plastic organ that changes with experience in our social world, so it does not entirely deny the influence of nurture.

84
Q

Issues and debates (Biological) AO3 -Holism Vs. reductionism

A

The biological approach is reductionist as it aims at explaining all behavior by the action of genetic or biochemical processes. It neglects the influence of factors such as early childhood experiences, conditioning, or cognitive processes.

85
Q

Issues and debates (Biological) AO3 -Idiographic Vs. nomothetic

A

It is a nomothetic approach as it focuses on establishing laws and theories about the effects of physiological and biochemical processes that apply to all people.

86
Q

Issues and debates (Biological) AO3 -scientific?

A

The biological approach uses very scientific methods such as scans and biochemistry. Animals are often used in this approach as the approach assumes that humans are physiologically similar to animals.

87
Q

Issues and debates (Psychodynamic) AO3 -Nature Vs. nurture

A

The psychodynamic approach recognizes the influence of social factors as it argues that we are driven by innate biological instincts, represented by the Id (nature), but the ways these instincts are expressed are shaped by our social and cultural environment (nurture).

88
Q

Issues and debates (Psychodynamic) AO3 -Holism Vs. reductionism

A

The psychodynamic approach is determinist as it rejects the idea of free will. A person’s behavior is determined by their unconscious motives, which are shaped by their biological drives and their early experiences.

89
Q

Issues and debates (Psychodynamic) AO3 -Idiographic Vs. nomothetic

A

Freud argued that human behavior is governed by universal processes that apply to everyone, e.g., the tripartite structure of the mind (nomothetic); however, he also proposed that the ways in which these processes manifest themselves in the individual are unique (idiographic).

90
Q

Issues and debates (Psychodynamic) AO3 -scientific?

A

The concepts proposed by Freud cannot be tested empirically. The theory is not falsifiable if people behave in the way predicted by the theory; it is viewed as support; if they don’t, it is argued that they are using defense mechanisms.

91
Q

Issues and debates (Humanism) AO3 -Nature Vs. nurture

A

The approach recognizes both the influence of nature and nurture, nurture- the influence of experiences on a person’s ways of perceiving and understanding the world, and nature- the influence of biological drives and needs (Maslow’s hierarchy of needs).

92
Q

Issues and debates (Humanism) AO3 -Holism Vs. reductionism

A

The approach is holistic as it does not try to break down behaviors into simpler components.

93
Q

Issues and debates (Humanism) AO3 -Idiographic Vs. nomothetic

A

As this approach views the individual as unique, it does not attempt to establish universal laws about the causes of behavior; it is an idiographic approach.

94
Q

Issues and debates (Humanism) AO3 -scientific?

A

As the approach views the individual as unique, it does not believe that scientific measurements of their behavior are appropriate.

A- LEVEL Psychology & Sociology (12 decks)

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