Psychology of Work Test Flashcards
Industrial Psychology
Focuses on human resource procedures in the workplace which are guided by psychological principles (includes job analysis, personnel selection, performance appraisal, and training.
Organizational Psychology
Focuses more on the “human side” of the worker, including topics such as work motivation, leadership, teams, job satisfaction, and work-life balance.
IO Psychology
Development and application of psychological principles to work settings - keeping workers productive, engaged, happy, and healthy.
Hawthorn Effect
Describes situation where people behave in certain ways because they know that they are in a study - worker efficiency in the study was affected because the workers wanted to please the researchers
Scientist Practitioner Model
A central tenet of I/O psychology stating that a strong I/O psychologist will be both a scientist/researcher as well as a strong practitioner - dual focus on scientific inquiry and practical application
What term represents tools used to evaluate job performance?
Criterion Measures
What other areas of psychology are involved in IO Psychology?
1.Basic Psychology (Personality, decision-making, motivation)
2. Social Psychology (Group processes and leadership)
3. Cognitive Psychology (Performance appraisal and learning)
4. Health Psychology (Stress)
5. Psychometric and individual differences (personnel selection and placement)
Scientific Management
Founded by Frederick Taylor
An approach meant to use logical, scientific principles in the management of organizations and that runs parallel to much of the work in the early years of IO Psychology.
If money is the primary motivation, you can maximize wages and profits by:
- linking pay to output Piecework compensation system) and set the rate at a constant level and
- Using time and motion studies to identify the one best way to do a job. - The best movement and equipment design
- Training workers to work in the best way
Human Relations
A movement that touted the effects of considering workers’ feelings and attitudes on performance
Theory
A description of the relationship among variables and how they influence each other in order to explain a phenomenon (Theory informs research and research informs theory. Both theory and research inform practice according to the scientist-practitioner model).
Empirical Research
Research based on direct or indirect observations. It is often done to see if a theory stands up when tested. (Theories provide a framework and guide the formulation of empirical research.
Deductive Approach to Research
A research approach that begins with a theory and sets out to test hypotheses based on this theory.
Inductive Approach to Research
A research approach that begins with observing a phenomenon and then developing a theory to explain it.
True Experiment
Should involve the use of an experimental group that receives the manipulation, and a control group that does not receive it and is used for comparison. Involve the use of random selection and random assignment, which allows for the control of confound variables and any other extraneous variables by ensuring the extraneous variables are evenly distributed across the experimental and control conditions.
***High internal validity, enables cause and effect analysis, theory building/refinement
Experiment
A type of study which includes random assignment to experimental conditions and contains at least one experimental group that receives the manipulation of the IV, and a control group that does not receive the IV and is used for comparison.
Field Experiment
When an experimental design is used in an organizational setting. This usually means when an organization allows researchers to randomly assign employees to experimental and control conditions.
Laboratory Experiments
A type of experiment that in psychology often involves the use of undergraduate students and online samples.
Quasi Experimental Designs
This design is close to a true experiment, but may be missing one aspect such as random assignment to conditions. This design does not have all the advantages of random assignment, but it can be far more practical in a field setting. Explores cause and effect relationships
Correlational Studies
Studies where there is no definite IV or DV; these studies look at the relationships among the variables.
Temporal Ordering
When two variables are placed in a particular order that helps with their interpretation. e.g., the predictor placed first and the outcome placed second (temporal ordering alone is not sufficient to explain causality).
Archival Sources
Datasets that have already been collected by others and are made available for analysis.
T-test
A statistic used to compare the mean of two groups (determines whether the difference between the two means is statistically significant).
Ex. A researcher wants to examine the effects of a classroom-based training program designed to improve employee job knowledge. She compared the job knowledge (measured on a test) of a group of trained employees with that of a control group that has no received any training.
Meta Analysis
Secondary research method; A statistical analysis of a group of studies by researches so that conclusions might be drawn about a phenomenon. Takes the sample size into account, resulting in more precise estimates and making sense of inconsistent findings.
Types of Measurement Scales
Relative Scale
Absolute Scale
Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale
Relative Scale
Indicates a person’s level on a variable relative to other people.
Absolute Scale
Indicates a person’s level on a variable in specific terms
Nominal Scale
Classifies a person into a category such as male/female
Ex. Where do you live?
1 - Suburbs
2 - City
3 - Town
Ordinal Scale
Indicated the place someone falls on a scale relative to others. However, this does not provide a meaningful difference between positions on a scale.
Ex. How satisfied are you with our services?
1 - Very unsatisfied
2 - Unsatisfied
3 - Neutral
4 - Satisfied
5 - Very Satisfied
Interval Scale
Have meaningful difference between positions on the scale, such that the difference between a 1 and 2 is the same as the difference between a 1 and a 3.
Ex. What is your family income?
Ex 2: What is the temperature in your city?
Ratio Scale
Are assumes to have an absolute zero, as well as a meaningful difference between positions on a scale.
Ex. What is your daughter’s current height?
- Less than 5 feet.
- 5 feet 1 inch – 5 feet 5 inches
- 5 feet 6 inches- 6 feet
- More than 6 feet
Reliability
The dependability of a measure, or its consistency in measurement
Test-retest reliability
Where a test is given to a group of people twice in order to see how stable their scores are by correlating their test scores.
Parallel Forms Reliability
Where two forms of a test are given to the same people at the same time and the scores on both measures are correlated to provide a reliability estimate.
Equivalent Form Reliability
Reliability that reveals the equivalence of test scores between two versions or parallel form of the test
Interrater Reliability
Where ratings of one rater are correlated with the ratings of another rater.
Validity
The extent to which the measure is actually measuring what it is supposed to measure.
Content Validity
A process demonstrating a measure was developed in a way that samples the domain of interest. This process involves documenting that the test actually samples the desired domain.
Criterion Related Validity
Involves the empirical demonstration that the test predicts a criterion or outcome that you care about. This is commonly done by correlating the test and the criterion.
Generalizable
How well the results from a study using one population transfer to another (e.g., the results from a study of college undergraduates to working professionals).
What distinguishes “criteria”, “actual criteria”, and “conceptual criteria” in performance evaluation?
Criteria are abstract performance standards, actual criteria are measurable outcomes against these standards, and conceptual criteria represent the ideal standards we aim to measure.
What accurately describes criterion deficiency, criterion contamination, and criterion relevance?
Deficiency: Actual criteria misses conceptual criteria
Contamination: Actual criteria includes unrelated elements
Relevance: Actual and conceptual criteria match
Job Analysis
The systematic process that helps you identify the job tasks and responsibilities, KSAOs, and critical incidents faced on the job. A job analysis usually implies a deep analytical process that is used to describe the job and what a person needs in order to perform the job.
Job Description
A simpler document that provides an overview of the job and its main responsibilities in about one or two pages. Can be given to employees so they better understand their jobs.
Job Specifications
A brief overview of the characteristics needed to do a job, including the minimum qualifications.
Qualifications
The skills and experience required to do a job.
Recruitment
A method of increasing you applicant pool in an attempt to find the best people for the job.
Valid Selection Procedures
Methods, such as test and interviews, which can be used in order to assist in hiring the best applicant for a job.
Performance Appraisals
An evaluation used by supervisors to evaluate employees’ performance
What are all the aspects of job analysis?
- Training
- Performance Appraisal
- Job Design
- Criterion Measures
- Job Descriptions/Specifications
- Recruitment
- Selection
- Assessment
- Compensation
Job Design
A systematic analysis of the organization of work, which often includes job analysis to identify the best way to allocate various tasks and responsibilities among different jobs.
Job evaluation
A particular type of job analysis, used to determine the relative value that jobs have within an organization.
Functional Categories
A group of tasks that serve a similar purpose. These groups of tasks are sometimes said to be grouped into larger “responsibilities”
Knowledge, skills, and Abilities (KSAs)
Used to describe the characteristics an employee needs to do the job. Knowledge is generally something that someone can learn, for example from a book. A skill is something that you can learn how to do, such
as handle a customer complaint properly. An ability is more innate, and something that the person brings with them to the job, such as a mechanical skill.
Subject Matter Expert
A job expert with a great deal of knowledge about and/or experience of the job. These are
the people from whom we get the job analysis information. Typically, an incumbent or supervisor.
Job Analyst
The person conducting a job analysis, this person is usually an I-O psychologist or HR specialist
Occupational Information Network (O*NET)
An online database developed by the US Department of Labor. The database contains job analyses from various job titles, and provides considerable information on work characteristics and requirements, as well as the experience needed for the job
Job Analysis Data Collection Methods
- Observations
- Job analysis interview
- Focus Groups
- Job analysis surveys
Observations in Job Analysis
Can be done by watching incumbents and SMEs doing their job.
Job Analysis Interview
When a job analyst asks SMEs questions about job responsibilities, tasks performed, critical incidents faced, and what KSAOs, experience, and qualifications are needed to effectively perform the job.
Focus Groups
When a job analyst gathers groups of SMEs and asks structured sets of questions regarding their jobs.
Job Analysis Survey
A questionnaire given to a large number of employees about the job in order to conduct the job analysis.
Work Oriented Job Analysis Method
A job analysis method in which the primary unit of analysis is the characteristics of the job.
Ex. Task KSA Analysis and Critical Incidents Technique
Task KSA Analysis
Involves generating a list of critical job tasks, and the KSAOs needed to do them, through observations and SME interviews.
Step 1 - data collection
step 2 - conduct task and KSA criticality survey
step 3 - Drop tasks and KSAs with low means or high standard deviations
step 4 - linkage analysis
step 5 - detailed description of a single job
Task Statement
Action Verb_ Object_ How_Using what equipment_Purpose
Criticality
How important a task is to job performance, typically in terms of importance to the job or relative time spent on the job. In a task criticality survey, a sample of SMEs is asked to rate each task identified by the job analysts from the interviews. The SMEs rate the task in terms of criticality.
Task KSA Linkage Survey
A step in the task-KSA analysis in which SMEs document the degree to which the KSAOs really are needed to do the tasks.
Critical Incidents Technique
A worker- oriented method of job analysis focused on documenting examples of critical situations faced by job incumbents, such as examples of good and poor ways to handle them, and the results.
Worker Oriented Job Analysis Approaches
Methods of job analysis that focus on the characteristics of the employee; examples of this are the position analysis questionnaire (PAQ) and competency modeling.
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
A standardized, pre-written job analysis questionnaire containing 195 items. The items describe a broad
range of jobs and are an alternative to the more time-consuming method of developing a task-KSA analysis.
Competency Modeling
A method of job analysis that involves describing the general characteristics needed in jobs in a company, especially within a series of jobs or across a range of jobs. This often includes the company values or mission statement. Competency models allow large organizations to compare different jobs and the different requirements of each.
Functional Job Analysis
Focuses on the purpose or functions of the job as opposed to the actual tasks being performed.
Internal Equity
A key goal of job evaluation, to assure fairness of relative pay values within the organization.
External Equity
Assessment of fair compensation in relation to market conditions for a particular job. This is important for attracting and retaining the best talent for each position.
Work Analysis
The term acknowledging that jobs are quickly changing and more fluid in today’s market.
Cognitive Task Analysis
A newer approach to job analysis, this goes beyond traditional task analysis by focusing specifically on the cognitive processes involved in doing the job.
Criteria
Outcome variables such as measures of employee knowledge, job performance, or attitudes. They are used to show the effectiveness of HR functions or procedures such as personnel selection (hiring) procedures or training systems.
Ex. Rollins Student of the Year
- What standards should guide this selection?
Conceptual Criterion
An abstract idea of the “essence” of a job. It cannot be measured directly.
Actual Criterion
The performance measure or measures (e.g., performance ratings, sales figures) you will actually use to try to capture the conceptual criterion. All actual criteria have some degree of unreliability and measurement error.
Criterion Problem
The difficulty of capturing the conceptual criterion with the actual criterion measures. This is because the
job analysis does not completely define the conceptual criterion, plus the actual criterion measures are unreliable and contain some measurement error.
Criterion Deficiency
The degree to which the actual criterion fails to overlap with the conceptual criterion.
Criterion Contamination
When an actual criterion measure includes something that it should not (e.g., bias), leading to error.
Criterion Relevance
The degree to which the actual criterion overlaps with the conceptual criterion.
Issues with Criterion Measures: Dynamic Criteria
The concept that performance for an individual employee may change over time.
Issues with criterion measures: Composite Criterion
A combination of multiple criteria, added or averaged together, used to show the “bottom- line” work performance. For example, one could see whether a training program helps an employee’s behavior overall.
Issues with criterion measures: Multiple Criteria
Treating each criterion measure separately
in an analysis. For example, one could
see whether a training program helps customer service behavior, safety behavior, and other behaviors of employees.
Dimensions of Job Performance
Task Perfomance
Contextual Performance
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs)
Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB)
Adaptive Behavior
Creative Performance
Task Performance
The core tasks that make up a particular job, typically shown in a job description.
Contextual Performance
Behaviors that support the social environment in the workplace
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs)
Behaviors focused on helping individual coworkers and helping to support the organization.
Type of Performance Criteria: Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB)
Work behaviors such as theft, derailment of others, and abusive leadership.
Adaptive Behavior
Includes factors such as adjusting to new social and tasks environments. It includes adapting to work stress, solving problems creatively, handling emergencies, and cultural and interpersonal adaptability.
Creative Performance
Involves problem- finding, flexibility, originality, and evaluation of ideas.
Actual Criterion Measures (Objective)
Sales figures
Units Produced
Absenteeism
Tardiness
Tenure and Turnover
Customer complaints
Accidents
Theft
Counter Productive Work Behavior (CWB)
Customer Service Behavior
Personnel Selection Procedures
A wide range of instruments that organizations
can use to predict job performance. This includes tests and other types of assessments such as job interviews, assessment centers, and simulations.
Formats of Different Personnel Selection Procedures
Paper and pencil tests
Unprocotred internet testing
Individually administered selection procedures
Group administered procedures
Speed tests
Power tests
Cognitive tests
Non-cognitive tests
Power Test
Tests which let respondents go at their own pace, with no consideration for how quickly an applicant can answer the questions.
Utility
The dollar value of using a selection procedure, which is largely determined by the procedure’s validity, the cost of using it, and the benefit it provides to the organization
in terms of improved performance of workers.
Adverse Impact
The degree to which there are mean differences in the performance of different subgroups (e.g., ethnic groups, men vs. women) on a selection procedure.
Battery of Selection Procedures (test battery)
A group of selection procedures that can be used together to predict job performance.
General cognitive ability (g)
Includes reasoning, symbolic representation, and problem solving.
Specific Cognitive Ability Tests
Tests that do not assess g but instead assess specific dimensions such as mechanical ability and/ or clerical speed and accuracy.
Psychomotor Tests
Tests which assess dexterity and/or coordination and which may require agility and dexterous movements of the fingers, hands, or body.
Integrity Test
Tests developed to predict a number of negative and counterproductive employee behaviors such as theft, malingering, drug use, and aggression.
Realistic Job Preview (RPJ)
A preview to the applicant about what the job is like, both good and bad. It can be provided in a number of ways such as through part of a job interview.
Work Sample
A test in which the applicant is asked to do a small portion of the job. For instance, an applicant for a mechanic’s job might be required to disassemble or assemble a piece of equipment as they would do in the workplace.
Ex. Keyboard typing test, play the drums, drive a fork lift, dance ballet
Assessment Centers
Work samples for managers.
Situational Judgement Tests
Technically known as low-fidelity simulations. SJT questions put the job applicant into a work-related situation and ask what they believe is the right action.
Biodata
Biodata items include questions concerning an applicant’s education and past work and life experience that can help decide how well the applicant can perform the job. They are typically scored through a detailed scoring process established through research.
Pullman Palace Car Company/George Pullman
Built a town for his workers south of Chicago, won the worlds most perfect town award. Pullman strike over wages (cut 25%) and rents (not reduced) disrupted entire U.S. railroad system. Caused sympathy strikes for railroad workers across the US
Frederick Taylors Assumptions about Work Owners and Managers
- Businesses Exist to Make Money
- (High Profits)
- High efficiency
- Low costs
- Piece Work Incentive System (Linking Pay to Performance)
- Workers work for money - scientific management theory is based on the fact that money is the main motivator
- If you show workers how to work efficiently and link pay to output, workers will work hard and produce more
- Workers view changing the piecework rate (demanding more output for the same pay) as unfair and manipulative
Soldiering
Major problem facing owners and managers/ worker productivity. Working well below capacity due to worker belief that higher productivity will lead to layoffs, non-incentive wage systems, rule of thumb work methods
RIASEC Model (Holland)
Realistic (asocial, frank, practical)
Investigative (analytical, reserved, rational)
Artistic (intuitive, expressive, open)
Social (friendly, tactful, warm)
Enterprising (Acquisitive, ambitious, energetic)
Conventional (careful, conforming, orderly)
Holland’s Typology Approach to Career Development
People search for environments that will:
1. Let them exercise their skills and abilities
2. express their attitudes and values
3. take on agreeable problems and roles
Trait and Factor Theory
One of the first vocational counseling theories:
- study the individual (job-related traits)
- study occupations (requirements)
- match the individual with the occupation
Key assumption: Individuals have unique patterns of abilities or traits that can be objectively measured and correlated with the requirements of various types of jobs.
