Psychology of Memory

Question 1

What are the key processes in memory?

Answer 1

There are three key processes in memory:
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Forgetting can result from failure of any of these stages, rather than a process in itself.

Question 2

What is the basic model of memory structure?

Answer 2

A basic model is the Multi-Store model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1974)

Question 3

What is sensory memory?

Answer 3

Auditory [Echoic] Memory: holds info for approx. 3 seconds
Visual [Iconic] Memory: holds info for approx. 250 ms

Question 4

What is short term memory?

Answer 4

STM – now termed Working Memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974) consists of 3 components:
Central Executive: aka ‘attention’
Phonological Loop: holds info in a speech-based form
Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: specialised for holding visual and spatial information

Question 5

What is working memory?

Answer 5

WM is a much more dynamic store than a unitary STM
Working memory has a limited capacity (LTM’s capacity and duration of storage has no limits)
It is usually found that we can only store around 7 ± 2 pieces of information in memory (Miller, 1956)
But chunking (grouping bits of info) makes remembering easier.

Question 6

What is meant by interference in memory recall?

Answer 6

Interference in WM- 2 types
Retroactive interference: new info interferes w retention of old info in WM (trying to remember your old phone number, having used your new number for a few months etc)

Proactive interference: Old info interferes w new info recall (mistakenly giving your old phone number instead of your new one)

Question 7

Long term memory?

Answer 7

There is a transfer process from working memory into long-term memory - as a result of rehearsal and elaboration. This is called consolidation
V large capacity, storage can be for a lifetime
In general, meaning is encoded rather than exact representation
e.g. you’ll remember that you received a letter from your friend regarding a party this weekend, but you won’t remember the exact wording (Sachs, 1960’s)

Question 8

What biological mechanisms occur during consolidation?

Answer 8

The pattern of neural pathways are changed
Long term potentiation: strengthening of synapses, believed to be the cellular foundation for memory, research to see if useful for dementia treatment
Rats given NMDA receptor antagonists display memory deficits. Mice bred with enhanced NMDA function show greater LTP and better memory
Requires metabolic activity for minutes/hours after the stimulus has been presented

Question 9

What is retrieval?

Answer 9

Cue required (e.g. prompt, reminder, question)
Og stimulus reconstructed using info from cue
The more info available, the easier the retrieval

Good ‘filing system’ also aids retrieval, e.g. mnemonic’s, or making something personally relevant to you= more likely to remember
Retrieval can be affected by interference

Question 10

Give the factors which affect retrieval

Answer 10

Levels of Processing: the more something is elaborated at time of encoding, the easier it will be to retrieve
Organisation of concepts in memory
Context: being in the same place/emotional state as the time of encoding facilitates recall=State Dependent Memory

Question 11

Procedural & Declarative Knowledge?

Answer 11

Procedural knowledge
Memory for how to do things/skills
Often in the absence of conscious recollection
e.g. How do you tie your shoelaces?

Declarative knowledge:
Memory for facts that can be conveyed by statements
Encompasses semantic and episodic memories
e.g. Your birthday

Question 12

How does dissociating function affect procedural and declarative knowledge?

Answer 12

Temporal Lobe Amnesia (e.g. Korsakoffs):
Patients can to learn skills (procedural)
Patients cannot learn new facts (declarative)

E.g. a patient improves performance on a simple task over time, but each time they will show no memory of ever having performed the task before despite obvious improvements

Question 13

What is semantic and episodic memory?

Answer 13

Both forms of Declarative Memory
Semantic memory: memory for facts, ideas
what is the capital of Peru?

Episodic memory: for events, situations centered around you
your first day at university
what did you have for breakfast today?

Question 14

How does dissociating function affect semantic and episodic memory?

Answer 14

The case of KC (Tulving, 1989)
Damage to left frontal-parietal and right parieto-occipital lobes following a traffic accident
Can no longer retrieve any autobiographical memory but general knowledge remains good
Plays chess well but forgot where he learned

Can learn semantic knowledge when care is taken but cannot acquire episodic knowledge, eg forgets ever meeting people met recently, but will be more friendly towards them than people he acc never met

Question 15

What is the difference between recognition and recall?

Answer 15

Recognition: sense of familiarity, easier than recall, as info is contained in the cue
Recognition can be direct from a set stimuli or from a mental search of LTM store

Recall: More demanding. Reconstructing a stimulus using the info available from the cue and LTM

Question 16

Recall and recognition can be inaccurate. Give a case study to support this

Answer 16

Eye Witness Reports (Loftus, 1979)
Participants watch a film of an accident, one includes a STOP sign, the other a YIELD sign. Using specific wording, you can change people’s memory:
‘How big was the stop sign by the road?’
The participant won’t remember the fact that they saw a yield sign
‘How fast were the cars going when they smashed in to each other?’
Participants will recall the cars were going faster than they actually were

Question 17

What are the main causes of forgetting?

Answer 17

Passage of time: rapid decay of info from WM
Cell death leads to loss of LTM (can be accelerated e.g. dementia)

Interference to storage in WM
Connections are remolded over time in LTM, influenced by pro- and retroactive interference of information

Antero/retrograde mnesia caused by damage, alc abuse, disease, psychogenic memory loss (eg trauma)

Question 18

Factors that will aid a patient’s memory for medical information?

Answer 18

Higher IQ
Greater medical/technical information
Higher anxiety levels–>improved memory, but reduces capacity to solve problems effectively

Question 19

Patients are more likely to remember…

Answer 19

…Information at the start/end of consultation (primacy / recency effect)
Statements perceived to be important and self relevant
When short words and sentences are used
When the material is organised e.g. into categories
When material is repeated
When instructions are explicit and concrete (e.g. use of practical examples)

Question 20

How can you remember info best?

Answer 20

Recalling the information immediately after it has been stored has been shown to lead to good LTM retention

Information is remembered best when it is interpreted according to one’s own ‘schema’