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Psychology of Learning Flashcards

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1
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

It is when we associate two or more things together and anticipate a particular outcome. There are a series of stimuli which allows us to catagorise behaviour and responses.

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2
Q

Describe pavlov’s experiment…

A
  • Classical conditioning was discovered by accident when research was being conducted into the digestive system of dogs.
  • During the research, it was noted that when the dog heard the lab assistants approaching to feed them, they started to salivate.
  • A series of controlled experiments were set up, with the aim of conditioning
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3
Q

What is the UCS, NS, CS, UCR, CR

A

Uncontrolled Stimulus
Neutral Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
Conditioned Response

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4
Q

What is acquisition in classical condition?

A

The overall process during which the organism learns to associate two events.
This is the process of the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus pairing.

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5
Q

What is performance in classical conditioning?

A

It is when the UCS is no longer required for the the CR to occur, this is known as performance.
With Pavlov’s, this was when the dog salivated as the sound of the bell, without the food being present.

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6
Q

What is contiguity in classical conditioning?

A

The timing of the stimulus being presented in order for the conditioning to occur.
It is the time between the NS and UCS is crucial to get right, otherwise the conditioning will not occur.
The UCS and NS need to be presented extremely close to each other.
Time needs to be rapid to ensure the pairing occurs.

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7
Q

What is contingency in classical conditioning?

A

The relationship between the stimulus and expectation that one comes with the other.
Contingency is the expectation that the CS will follow.
This occurs after the conditioning has occurred - think of the dogs waiting for food after the ding.
The expectation is contingency.

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8
Q

What is stimulus generalisation?

A

The spread of effects of conditioning to stimuli that differ in certain aspects from the stimulus present during original conditioning.
If the response is similar to the presence of the original stimulus, generalisation has occurred.

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9
Q

What is stimulus discrimination?

A

The ability to distinguish among different stimuli and to respond differently to them.

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10
Q

What is an example of stimulus discrimination

A

The child only reacts to when a red balloon pops, not all colours of balloons.

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11
Q

What is an example of stimulus generalisation?

A

A small dog bit a kid, so they are afraid of all dogs.

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12
Q

What is extinction?

A

A process in which the pairing of the stimulus events is discontinued.
This can occur by either presenting the conditioned stimulus alone or by presenting the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus independently of one another.
The decline is gradual and relative to this magnitude of the conditioned response.

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13
Q

What is spontaneous recovery?

A

The reappearance of a conditioned response, following either operant or classical conditioning AFTER it has been experimentally extinguished.

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14
Q

What does Seligman state?

A

There is an evolutionary response that allows us to adapt and survive.
Psychologists believe that animals and human alike are biologically predisposed to form associations between stimulus that threaten our survival or expose harm to us.

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15
Q

Are all associations in classical conditioning equal?

A

No, the role of biological preparedness in the development of taste aversions and phobias.

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16
Q

What is systematic desensitisation?

A

A form of behaviour therapy in which counterconditioning is used to reduced anxiety associated with a particular stimulus.

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17
Q

What are the stages of systematic desensitisation?

A
  1. The client is trained in deep-muscle relaxation.
  2. Various anxiety-provoking situations related to the particular problem are listed in order from weakest to strongest, this is a hierarchy.
  3. Each of these situations is presented in imagination or in reality, beginning with the weakest whilst the client practices muscle relaxation.

Muscle relaxation is incompatible with the anxiety, the client gradually response less to the anxiety-provoking situations.

This is a conscious choice, if the person is not calm for a step, thy will not progress.

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18
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

The learning process in which the strength of the behaviour is modified by the consequences following the behaviour.
The approach is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviours.
All behaviours are learned through interaction with the environment.

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19
Q

If a behaviour is followed by a pleasant consequence is it less or more likely repeated?

A

more likely

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20
Q

If a behaviour is followed by an unpleasant consequence is it less or more likely repeated?

A

less likely

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21
Q

What are the two key elements to operant conditioning?

A

Reinforcers and punishers.

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22
Q

What is a reinforcer in operant conditioning?

A

Any stimulus (action or event) that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response (behaviour) occurring again.

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23
Q

What is a punisher in operant conditioning?

A

Any stimulus (action or event) that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a response (behaviour) occurring again.

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24
Q

What is positive reinforcement in operant conditioning?

A

The procedure of presenting a positive reinforcer after a response.

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25
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

The removal of an aversive stimulus as a consequence of a response, which will increase the probability of that response.

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26
Q

What is a punishment in operant conditioning?

A

It is defined as the opposite of reinforcement - is designed to weaken, stop or eliminate a response rather than increase it.

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27
Q

What is an aversive punishment in operant conditioning?

A

Occurs when aversive or unpleasant stimuli is given or applied after an undesired behaviour takes place/occurs, with the aim of making the behaviour less likely to occur in the future.

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28
Q

What is response cost within operate conditioning?

A

Occurred when certain responses results in the loss (or cost) of something pleasurable. This is when a pleasant stimulus is removed.

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29
Q

What is an example of an aversive punishment in operant conditioning?

A

Spraying a dog with water or hitting them.

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30
Q

What is an example of an response cost in operant conditioning?

A

If a kid is naughty their favourite toy is taken away.

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31
Q

What are the advantages of reinforcement?

A
  • Teaches correct behaviour.
  • Makes a child, animal or adult feel loved or appreciated.
  • Helps develop self-esteem.
  • Increases motivation to do the correct behaviour again in the future.
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32
Q

What are the limitations of using punishment?

A
  • Feelings of resentment, frustration, aggression, helplessness may develop in a person who is punished frequently.
  • Punished behaviour is not forgotten, its supressed and may return when the punishment, or threat of punishment is no longer present.
  • Can create fear of people in authority, which can be generalized to other situations.
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33
Q

What is contiguity in operant conditioning?

A

Refers to the timing during the learning phase, or how ideas, memories and experiences are linked closely together in time.
Skinner found that it needed to be within 0.5 seconds.

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34
Q

What is contingency in operant conditioning?

A

The relationship between a response and a reinforcer, or a response and the punisher (dependent on each other).

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35
Q

What are the two kinds of reinforcement?

A

Continuous and partial reinforcement.

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36
Q

What is continuous reinforcement?

A

When reinforcement is given after each and every demonstration or performance of the desired behaviour.
Learning happens quickly when continuous reinforcement is used.
The drawback is that if reinforcement is stopped, the behaviour will quickly slow down and eventually stop.

37
Q

What is partial reinforcement?

A

Occurs when only some of the desired behaviours are reinforced.
Skinner experimented with four different experimental conditions and manipulated both the timing and frequency of when he rewarded his animals for correct behaviours.
Can be done through interval schedules and ration schedules.

38
Q

What is interval schedules?

A

When you’re reinforced based on time intervals that a behaviour is performed.

39
Q

What is a ratio schedules?

A

Reinforcement based on the frequency (or number of times) of the behaviour being performed.

40
Q

What is fixed intervals?

A

Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g after 5, 10, 15 and 20mins).

41
Q

Examples of fixed intervals?

A

Being paid every fortnight.
Supervisors walks past your desk every hour.

42
Q

What is a variable interval?

A

Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g after 5,7, 10 and 20 mins).

43
Q

What are examples of variable intervals?

A

Checking social media for notifications.
Fishing - you don’t know when the fish will bite, but the longer you leave the line in, the more likely you will get a bite.

44
Q

What are fixed ratios?

A

Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g after 2, 4, 6 and 8 responses.)

45
Q

What are examples of fixed ratios?

A

Classroom behaviour charts
Piecework - a factory worker getting paid for every X number of items.
Loyalty schemes

46
Q

What are variable ratios?

A

Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g. after 1, 4, 5 and 9 responses).

47
Q

What are examples of variable ratio?

A

Gambling - poker machines, you press a button and you will get a reward after an unpredictable number of presses.
Sales pitch - the more people you pitch to, the more likely you will get a sale.

48
Q

What is the learning of continuous reinforcement?

A

The learning is fast, this schedule is best used when learning something new. Animals and people respond equally well.

49
Q

What is the performance of continuous reinforcement?

A

Performance may become dependent on the reward being present. High rates of response, as each response is rewarded.

50
Q

What is the extinction of continuous reinforcement?

A

Extinction rate is FAST. More likely to become extinct once the reward stops.

51
Q

What is the learning of fixed intervals?

A

Once the interval is learned, performance will drop off until the next time interval approaches. Eg, students don’t study, until the night before the next test.

52
Q

What is the performance of fixed intervals?

A

Moderate response rate but there is no incentive to perform the behaviour between rewards. Behaviour increases as the next time interval approaches.

53
Q

What is extinction of fixed interval?

A

Resistance to extinction increases as the interval lengthens in time, however likely to become extinct quite quickly with no reinforcer.

54
Q

What is the learning of variable interval?

A

Useful for teachers to keep students studying on a regular basis, as they may not know when they are going to be tested next.

55
Q

What is the performance of variable interval?

A

Moderate yet steady response rate. Don’t know when a reinforcer will come but it’s worth it to keep checking.

56
Q

What is the extinction of variable interval?

A

More resistant to extinction than the fixed interval schedule, as long as the intervals are similar.

57
Q

What is the learning of fixed ratio?

A

Useful when learning something new, but you don’t want to reinforce every correct behaviour.

58
Q

What is the performance of fixed ratio?

A

High response rate with pauses after reinforcement.

59
Q

What is the extinction of fixed ratio?

A

Extinction is reached quickly when all reinforcement is taken away.

60
Q

What is the learning of variable ratio?

A

Useful once a behave has already been learned, a variable ratio schedule is the best way to maintain behaviour.

61
Q

What is the performance of variable ratio?

A

High and steady response rate.

62
Q

What is the extinction of variable ratio?

A

Very addictive, and resistant to extinction.

63
Q

What is the placebo?

A

A treatment which could be medication, therapy or other intervention that appears to have the benefits of the medical intervention.

64
Q

What causes the placebo effect?

A

You had high expectations that the pill would work, and therefore it did - a mind over matter situation.

65
Q

What is behaviour modification?

A

It is a set of therapies/techniques based on operant conditioning.
It is the process of changing (modifying) behaviours over the long-term various motivational techniques, and reinforcement strategies (either positive or negative).
The aim is to replace inappropriate or problem behaviours with more positive, desirable ones.

66
Q

What is observational learning?

A

It is a type of learning that happens indirectly through a process of watching others and then imitating their behaviour, also known as modelling/ acquisition and later performance of behaviour demonstrated by others.

67
Q

What is the four step process of observational learning which is considered a cognitive component?

A

Attention - the individual notices something in the environment/focuses on others behaviour
Retention - the individual remembers what was noticed/the ability to retain a representation of other’s behaviour in memory.
Reproduction - the individual produces action that is a copy of what was noticed/ability to actually perform the actions that were observed
Motivation - the environment delivers a consequence that changes the probability the behaviour will be produced again/the need for the actions we witness; their usefulness to us

68
Q

What is required for observational learning to be successful?

A

ARRM four step process and motivation.

69
Q

If a model is reinforced (rewarded) for their behaviour, why are you more likely to reproduce this behaviour yourself?

A

Vicarious reinforcement

70
Q

If a model is punished for their behaviour, why are you less likely to reproduce this behaviour yourself?

A

Vicarious punishment

71
Q

What are the three things Bandura’s work draws from both behavioural and cognitive views of learning?

A

He believes that the mind, behaviour and environment all play an important role in the learning process.

72
Q

What are the differences between operant conditioning and observational learning?

A

Operant conditioning:
- Emphasises the importance of the organism’s direct experience when learning.
- No distinction between learning and performance.
- Does not include the role of cognition in the learning process.

Observational learning:
- Suggests that learning can occur indirectly through observation.
- Distinguishes between learning and performance.
Learning can occur but not be demonstrated unless there is motivation to perform the learnt behaviour (latent behaviour).
Therefore distinguishes between the acquisition and performance of a behaviour learnt through observation.
- Includes the role of cognition (thinking and memory) in the learning process.
The learner must attend to the model’s behaviour and its consequences and the store a mental representation of it.

73
Q

What are the similarities between operant and observational learning?

A

The learner is active in both learning processes.
- It is reinforcement (rather than the learning itself) that influences the likelihood of the behaviour being imitated by the observer.
This is known as vicarious conditioning: where an observer learns the consequences of a behaviour y observing these consequences occurring to someone other than themselves.

74
Q

What is a mirror neuron?

A

Ac type of cell in the brains of certain animals and humans that responds in the same way to a given action whether the animal performs the action itself or sees another animal perform the action.

75
Q

What is the evidence for a mirror cell in the brain being involved in observational learning?

A

A research team recorded neuron activity in the frontal and parietal areas of the brain during the execution and observation of a movement being completed.
The overlapping sensory-motor representations have also been implicated in observational learning and imitation.
Due to mirror neurons, we understanding how human emotions and physiological states are contagious.

76
Q

What is a behavioural count?

A

Used to gather data on behaviours observed by researchers with inter-rater reliability shown to be very high (r=0.89).
Allows for objective quantitative data to be collected reducing observer errors.

77
Q

What were the results of the Bandura Bobo doll study?

A

Children who observed an aggressive model were more likely to model this behaviour across both groups.
→ Modelling was higher when the sex of the model matched the sex of the child exposed to the behaviour.
The results were comparable across males and females.
→ Females were more likely to model physical aggression when exposed to the male model compared to showing verbal aggression when exposed to the female model.

78
Q

According to Bandura’s research what are the factors that increase the likelihood that a behaviour will be imitated? People we…

A

perceive as warm and nurturing,
receive rewards for their behaviour,
Who are in an authoritative position in our lives,
Who are in similar to us in age, sex and interests,
Who we admire or who are of a higher social status,
When we have been rewarded for imitating the behaviour in the past
When we lack confidence in our own knowledge or abilities
When the situation is confusing, ambiguous or unfamiliar.

79
Q

Describe the uniqueness of how people learn…

A

Describe how the characteristics of the learner influence their learning.
There are unique ways people learn, there are also personal differences in the way we learn.
Due to uniqueness of individuals, we all learn at different rates and have strengths and weaknesses in different areas of our learning.
The speed at which an individual learns is dependent upon a combination of many personal characteristics.

80
Q

Describe how personal characteristics impact how people learn…

A

Often relate to demographic information such as age, gender, personality, maturity, socioeconomic status, cultural background and specific needs of a learner (particular skills and disabilities/impairments to learning).

81
Q

Describe how academic characteristics impact how people learn…

A

More education and/or learning related such as learning styles, learning goals, prior knowledge, educational type and educational level.

82
Q

Describe how social/emotional characteristics impact how people learn…

A

Relate to the group or the individual. Includes group structure, place of the individual within a group, motivation, self-image etc.

83
Q

Describe how cognitive characteristics impact how people learn…

A

Relates to attention span, memory, mental procedures, intellectual skills which determines how learners perceive, think, solves problems, organises and represents information in the brain.

84
Q

What is cognitive behaviour therapy?

A

Can be used to treat anxiety and depression.
Has theoretical foundations in classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning.
Views problematic behaviour as fundamentally learned – therefore makes sense that undesired behaviour can be unlearned.

85
Q

Describe how cognitive-behavioural therapy could be tailored to meet different people’s needs.

A

Every person’s diagnosis of anxiety, depression, stress, anger management, addiction, hostility, post-traumatic stress disorder or other mental health concern will be unique to them.

86
Q

What is response cost as a punishment?

A

When certain responses results in the loss (or cost) of something pleasurable.
When a pleasant stimulus is removed.

87
Q

What is aversive punishment as punishment?

A

When aversive or unpleasant stimuli is given or applied after an undesired behaviour takes place/occurs, with the aim of making the behaviour less likely to occur in the future.

88
Q

What are the steps of behaviour modification?

A

Step 1- monitor the amount of time currently doing the activity to create a baseline for how problematic the behaviour currently is.
Step 2 - negotiate realistic goal to work towards with the person.
Step 3 - discuss and agree upon a reinforcement schedule with a set of rules when the person can be rewarded.
Step 4 - start behaviour modification program and reward small improvements in the desired behaviour.
Step 5 - gradually remove the reward to determine whether the behaviour has improved.

An alternative or additional strategy is a changing environment or condition that is currently reinforcing their undesirable behaviour.

89
Q

What is behaviour medication used for?

A

Is a set of therapy/techniques based on operate conditioning therapy.
The process of changing or modifying behaviours over a long-term process using various motivational techniques and reinforcement strategies. These can be positive or negative.
The aim is to replace any inappropriate or problematic behaviours with more positive desirable ones

Psychology (5 decks)

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