Psychology: Non-Experimental Methods

Question 1

What is the difference between a correlation and an experiment?

Answer 1

• Experiments involve the manipulation of one variable (IV) to see the effect on another (DV). This allows cause to be established.
• Correlational variables (co-variables) cannot be manipulated. They can only be measured. This means cause cannot be established.

Question 2

What are the variables called in a correlation study?

Answer 2

Co-variables

Question 3

What is meant by a positive correlation?

Answer 3

As one co-variable increases, s does the other

Question 4

What is meant by a negative correlation?

Answer 4

As one co-variable increases, the other decreases

Question 5

What is meant by a zero correlation?

Answer 5

When there is no relationship between two co-variables

Question 6

Why can’t we say one co-varibel cause the effect on the other co-variable?

Answer 6

Correlation does not equal causation

Question 7

Two strengths of correlation research

Answer 7

• It allows the researcher to study the relationship between variable that cannot be manipulated e.g. smoking and lung cancer
• It is possible to correlate a large amount of data and secondary data (data that has already be collected for another purpose) can be used

Question 8

One limitation of correlational research

Answer 8

Association does not mean causation –> Cause and Effect cannot be established

Question 9

What is a Naturalistic observation?
Strength & Limitation

Answer 9

An observation where the researcher studies behaviour in its real-life or natural setting without any intervention or control from the researcher
- Often participants do not know they are being obsevered

Strength: High external validity
Limitation There are ethical issues

Question 10

What is a Controlled observation?
Strength & Limitation

Answer 10

The observation happens in a carefully controlled and structured environment
- The researcher set specific conditions, variables, and procedures to systematically observe and measure behaviour
Example: Mary Ainsworth’s strange situation to measure attachment in children

Strength: More control over what is being observed, more replicable + more extraneous variables are controlled
Limitation: Low external validity

Question 11

What is a Covert observation?
Strength & Limitation

Answer 11

Where the participant does not know they are being observed
- As you cannot get informed consent, it must be behaviour that is public and happening anyway to be ethical

Strength: Avoids demand characteristics or participant reactivity
Limitation: Cannot demonstrate causal relationships

Question 12

What is a Overt observation?
Strength & Limitation

Answer 12

Where the participant know they are being observed and have given informed consent.
- Participants have given informed consent prior to the observation

Strength: More ethical
Limitation: There are more demand characteristics

Question 13

What is a Participant observation?
Strength & Limitation

Answer 13

Where observer goes ‘undercover’ and joins group that is being observed - they become part of the research

Strength: Allows the researcher to get in depth information - Increased insight may increase external validity
Limitation: Cannot demonstrate causal relationships

Question 14

What is a Non-participant observation?
Strength & Limitation

Answer 14

Where the observer remain separate from those they are studying and observes in a more objective way

Strength: It avoids ethical issues involved in participant observation
Limitations: Cannot demonstrate causal relationships

Question 15

Why can’t cause and effect be established in observations?

Answer 15

Because there is no IV and therefore no DV

Question 16

What are behavioural categories?

Answer 16

When a target behaviour is broken down into components that are observable and measurable

Question 17

What is event sampling?

Answer 17

Involves counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs
Example: the number of aggressive acts during a school playtime

Strength: Good for when a behaviour occurs infrequently and could be missed through time sampling
Limitation: Important details may be overlooked during more complex observations

Question 18

What is time sampling?

Answer 18

Involves recording behaviour within a predetermined time frame, record what behaviour is occurring at ever Nth time

Strength: Effective in reducing the number of observations that have to be made
Limitation: The behaviour sampled may be unpresentable of the observation as a whole

Question 19

What is meant by inter-observer reliability?

Answer 19

Observer bias can be a problem in observations. To avoid this, observations should be carried out by at least 2 observes, using the same behavioural categories who independently observe the observation.

Question 20

How do researchers check (assess) for inter-observer reliability?

Answer 20

1. Each observer independently rates the observation using the same behavioural categories
2. Correlate the findings using a Scatter Graph
3. The observation is reliable if the level of agreement is +0.8 (80%) or above.

Question 21

How can the reliability of an observation be improved?

Answer 21

Use two observers observing the same behavioural Characteristics

Question 22

What is meant by a ‘self-report’ technique?

Answer 22

Any method where the person is asked to explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours on a topic

Question 23

What type of data do closed questions produce, qualitative or quantitative?

Answer 23

Qualitative data - wide range of more detailed data but harder to analysis

Question 24

What type of data do open questions produce, qualitative or quantitative?

Answer 24

Quantitative data - lacks depth but easy to analysis. If data is not quantitative it can be turned into quantitative data e.g. through counting number of Yes vs No responses.

Question 25

Give an example of an open question asking about someone’s view on school

Answer 25

What do you think about school?

Question 26

Give an example of a closed question asking about someone’s view on school

Answer 26

Do you like school? Yes/No

Question 27

Strength of Open questions in psychological research

Answer 27

• Provides full and in-depth information
• Allows participants to answer how they really want to

Question 28

Limitation of Open questions in psychological research

Answer 28

• Participants may not bother to answer at all
• Difficult to compare one answer with another

Question 29

Strength of Closed questions in psychological research

Answer 29

• Easier to answer
• Allows comparisons to be made between different answers easily

Question 30

Limitation of Closed questions in psychological research

Answer 30

• Participants may not be able to answer how they want to

Question 31

Strength of Questionnaires in psychological research

Answer 31

• Cost effective: allows lots of data to be collected relatively cheaply
• Data can be easily analysed: if closed questions are used (fixed choice) the results lend themselves to statistical analysis and comparisons between groups can easily be made

Question 32

How might Social Desirability Bias affect the way people respond to a question in a self-report study?

Answer 32

Type of demand characteristic where humans wish to be seen / portrayed in a positive way –> may change response.

Question 33

What is meant by Acquiescence Bias is elf-report studies?

Answer 33

AGREE - humans have the tendency to agree with a statement, regardless of the content.

Question 34

Explain why using interviews rather than questionnaires may be a better method for some types of research in Psychology

Question 35

Explain the difference between structured and unstructured interviews

Question 36

2 strengths of Structured interviews in psychological research

Question 37

2 strengths of Unstructured interviews in psychological research

Question 38

2 limitations of Structured interviews in psychological research

Question 39

2 limitations of Unstructured interviews in psychological research

Question 40

How might researcher bias be reduced in interviews

Question 41

What is the difference between Quantitative and Qualitative data?

Question 42

Which research methods produce Quantitative data?

Question 43

Which research methods produce Qualitative data?

Question 43

Strength and Limitation of Quantitative data

Question 44

Strength and Limitation of Qualitative data

Question 45

What is the difference between primary and Secondary data?

Question 46

What is Meta-analysis?