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Social, Personality, and Abnormal > Psychology in Society > Flashcards

Psychology in Society Flashcards

1
Q

What is a social dilemma?

A
  • Each decision maker has a course of action that may yield superior outcomes for the self
  • But if we all choose this strategy, it’ll all end up worse off than if people cooperated
  • Basically where self-interest and collective interests are at odds with each other
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2
Q

What types of social dilemmas are there?

A

Social traps

Social fences

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3
Q

What is a social trap?

A

+ for the self

- to the collective

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4
Q

What are social fences?

A
  • for the self

+ to the collective

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5
Q

What does the Rational Self Interest Model state?

A

That humans should optimise outcomes for the self over the collective.
But this does not account for the whole picture

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6
Q

How are humans ultra-social compared to non-human primates?

A
  • We punish free-riders
  • Children apply some form of distributive justice
  • We intervene as a third-party in response to norm violations
  • Intrinsically motivated to help
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7
Q

What are the key mechanisms of cooperation?

A
  • Reciprocity
  • Indirect reciprocity
  • Fairness
  • Punishment
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8
Q

What is direct reciprocity?

A

A helps B, so B helps A

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9
Q

What are game theoretical paradigms?

A
  • Interactive games between PPs wwhich bring social dilemmas into the lab
  • Usually in the form of economic games
  • Allows us to study social decision-making in a controlled way
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10
Q

What is the prisoners dilemma?

A
  • A and B commit a crime and get arrested
  • The prosecutors need one of them to turn on their partner so they can charge the other
  • A and B have the choices to cooperate and refuse to talk or defect and testify against your co-conspirer
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11
Q

What is the iterated prisoners dilemma?

A

Repeated rounds of the prisoners dilemma against a simulated other.

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12
Q

What is the tit for tat strategy in the iterated prisoner’s dilemma?

A

Player starts cooperative and then responds in kind to the other person’s actions

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13
Q

What is indirect reciprocity?

A

Upstream: A helps B so B helps C
Downstream: A helps B so C helps A

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14
Q

Why do we study fairness and punishment in social decisions?

A

Fairness norms are a powerful source of social influence

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15
Q

What game do we use to test fairness and punishment?

A

Ultimatum game

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16
Q

What is the ultimatum game?

A
  • Player A receives an initial endowment and they devide the money as they see fit and offers part to plater B
  • B can accept or reject
  • If player B rejects, no one gets any money
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17
Q

What emotional responses are found in fairness?

A
  • People perceieve unfair others as less likeable, agreeable and even less attractive than fair others
  • Emotionally people respond to unfair others with disgust, anger, and sometimes sadness
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18
Q

What is the public goods game used for?

A

There are variants used to examine trust, cooperation, and reputation-building in groups

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19
Q

What is the public goods game?

A
  • Everyone gets an endowment
  • Everyone puts as many tokens in the pot as they choose
  • The pot is multiplied by a factor and then the pot is split up again
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20
Q

What have we found about fairness and punishment?

A
  • Norms for fairness drive behaviour beyond ‘rational self interest’
  • Fairness violations elicit powerful emotional and behavioural responses
    People will incur a cost to punish others for unfair behaviour, even if they are merely third parties to the behaviour
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21
Q

What have we found about consistent contributors?

A
  • Contributions remained high in groups with high consistent contributors
  • CCs ultimately made more money than members of groups without CC
  • Addtive effect of status whereby high status CC had a stronger effect
  • Motivational dispositions of the group did not maek a difference
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22
Q

What have we found about propagation of cooperation?

A
  • When an individual cooperates with another individual, it tends to influence the second individual in future interactoins
  • The original individual’s cooperative influence persists over time and across the social network
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23
Q

What is perspective-taking?

A

Inferences about others’ mental states

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24
Q

What is empathy?

A

Inferences about others’ affective states

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25
Q

What facilitates helping behaviour?

A

Empathic responses

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26
Q

What determines whether helping actually occurs?

A

Critical moderators

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27
Q

What are the two definitions of power?

A
  • Capacity to influence others while resisting their attempts to influence
  • Relative control over another’s valued outcomes
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28
Q

What are harsh bases of power?

A
  • Use economic and physical outcomes
  • Work with outcomes that are more tangible and explicit
  • Rely upon power differentials that are more obvious
  • More likely to ecist when power is illigitimate
  • Require surveillance
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29
Q

What are soft bases of power?

A
  • Use social outcomes
  • Work with more outcomes that are more subjective and intangbile
  • Rely upon power differentials that may be less obvious
  • NOT weaker than harsh
  • Tend to produce influence that is self-sustaining
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30
Q

What are types of harsh power?

A

Coercive

Reward

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31
Q

What are types of soft power?

A

Informational
Expert
Referent

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32
Q

What are types of both harsh and soft power?

A

Legitmate

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33
Q

What is the approach theory of power?

A

When you’re in a high position of power, you’re in an approach oriented state

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34
Q

What does the approach oriented state involve?

A
  • Attention to rewards
  • Positive emotions (desire, pride)
  • Automatic cognition
  • Disinhibition
  • State/trait driven behaviour
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35
Q

What is the inhibition theory of power?

A

When you’re in a low position of power, you’re in an inhibited state.

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36
Q

What does the inhibited state involve?

A
  • Attention to threats
  • Negative emotions (awe, embarassment)
  • Systematic, controlled cognition
  • Inhibition
  • Situationally constrained behaviour
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37
Q

When feeling powerful, people tend to…?

A
  • More willing to engage in action
  • Act in line with their own preferences
  • Express opinions openly
  • Experience/express more +ve emotions
  • Decreased motivation to affiliate with lower power
  • Less likely to be perspective-taking or empathetic
  • Lower basal cortisol levels and power cortisol
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38
Q

What individual differences are there when acquiring social influence?

A
  • Dominance vs prestige

- Motivation and leadership

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39
Q

What is dominance?

A

The degree of deference, respect, and attention one receives as a consequence of the perceived ability to coerce, intimidate, and impose costs and benefits

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40
Q

What is prestige?

A

The degree of deference, respect, and attention an individual receives as consequence of the perceived attractiveness as a cultural model of coalition partner.

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41
Q

Do dominance and prestige predict power?

A
  • Both independently predict power

- Both independently predict visual attention toward the target

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42
Q

Would unstable leadership lead dominance motivated individuals to withhold information from group members?

A

Yes

- less keen for their team to get good clues

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43
Q

How does low dominance show in motivation and leadership?

A

They don’t care whether their leadership is stable/unstable/equal, they wanted their team to do the best they could either way

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44
Q

Would unstable leadership lead dominance-motivated individuals to exclude highly-skilled group members form the group?

A

Yes, they act in their own self interest.

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45
Q

What does group-based power persist?

A

Social identity
Social dominance
System justification

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46
Q

How does group-based dominance exert itself?

A
  • Force
  • Outgroup derogation
  • Ingroup bias
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47
Q

What is the social identity approach?

A
  • Groups provide us with a social identity
  • Group identity increases self-stereotyping, depersonalisation, perceieved intergroup difference
  • We strive for positive distinctiveness
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48
Q

What is social dominance theory?

A
  • Group-based hierarchies exist acrpss societies
  • Discrimination is coordinated via legitimising myths
  • Social dominance orientation
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49
Q

What is social dominance orientation?

A

An individual orientation toward group-based dominance

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50
Q

What are legitimising myths?

A

Societal shared social ideologies

- e.g. men have more power because women are emotionally unstable (false but supports the societal structure)

51
Q

What does social dominance orientation correlate positively with?

A

Sexism
Racism
Nationalism
Support for the US invasion of Iraq

52
Q

What does social dominance orientation correlate negatively with?

A

Tolerance
Egalitarianism
Support for human rights
Support for the military intervention i the Yugoslovakian war

53
Q

What does social dominance orientation correlate negatively with?

A

Tolerance
Egalitarianism
Support for human rights
Support for the military intervention i the Yugoslovakian war

54
Q

What is the system justification theory?

A
  • Process by which existing social arrangements are legitimised even at the expense of personal group interest
55
Q

What are the 3 sections of system justification theory?

A
  • Ego
  • System
  • Group
56
Q

What does the ego section of system justification theory represent?

A

The desire to maintain a favourable image, to feel valid, justified, and legitimate as an individual

57
Q

What does the status section of the system justification theory represent?

A

Desire to imbue the status quo with legitimacy and to see it as good, fair, natural, desireable, and even inevitable

58
Q

What does the group section of the system justification theory represent?

A

The desire to maintain favourable images of one’s group and to justify the actions of ingroup members

59
Q

Why is conformity different to obedience?

A

Because conformity is still a change in behaviour or express attitudes and beliefs, but it’s in response to social norms or others behaviour so it’s not in response to a direct request

60
Q

What is a situationist account?

A

The idea that is not so much the kind of person a man is as the kind of situation in which he finds himself that determines how he will act

61
Q

What is persuasion?

A

A change in attitude, beliefs, or behaviour in response to direct messages

62
Q

What does persuasion require>

A

Internalisation

63
Q

What are the different components to persuasion?

A
  • Affect
  • Behaviour
  • Cognition
    ABC
64
Q

What is the affect component of persuasion?

A

Attitudes strictly as an evaluative response so that you respond positively vs negatively to something

65
Q

What is the behaviour component of persuasion?

A

Incorporate behaviour into their definition of attitudes, and the logic here is that the whole purpose of attitudes is because they prepare us to act

66
Q

What is the cognition aspect of persuasion?

A

People talk about attitudes as a constellation, also a whole set of cognition of ideas or thoughts around the attitude target on top of behavioural correlates

67
Q

Why is it difficult to show the attitude to behaviour link in the lab?

A
  • not clear which component out of the 3 is important in a given situation
  • Not clear which attitude is driving behaviour in a given situation
  • Behaviour toward one attitude object could be controlled by attitude toward another
68
Q

What is heuristic processing of persuasion?

A
  • Argument quality is not so important

- Relies upon simple rules like ‘majority rules’ or ‘he looks trustworthy’

69
Q

What is systematic processing of persuasion?

A
  • Argument quality is important
  • Involved effortful scrutiny of all relevant information like ‘are the arguments logically coherent’
  • Attitude is more resistant to change
70
Q

When do we use systematic processing in persuasion?

A
  • When one is motivated to be accurate, defend an attitude, or create a positive impression
  • When one has the cognitive capacity for effortful processing
  • When one’s personality requires clear explanations
71
Q

What factors affect persuasion?

A

Source
Message
Audience

72
Q

What do we search for in a source when being persuaded?

A
  • Expertise
  • trustworthiness
  • likeability
  • status
  • group membership
73
Q

What do we search for in the message when being persuaded?

A
  • One vs Two-sided arguments
  • Emotional vs cognitive appeal
  • Explicit vs implicit conclusion
74
Q

What differences in audience affect likelihood of being persuaded?

A
  • Intelligence
  • Self-esteem
  • Need for cognition
  • Cognitive load
75
Q

How does matching source and audience increase likelihood of persuasion?

A

Sources are more persuasive when they share characteristics with the audience

76
Q

How do high-power communicators persuade?

A
  • used more competence-relate arguments
77
Q

How do low-power communicators persuade?

A
  • Used more warmth-related arguments
78
Q

When matching message and audience, what is important?

A

Matching need for affect and need for cognition

79
Q

How does source expertise link with audience motivation?

A

People process experts’ message heuristically when not very motivated. But also likely to attend closer and process then systematically when interested

80
Q

What is proattitudinal?

A

When people agree with us, we trust experts and process their arguments heuristically but we scrutinise non-experts in order to identify weaknesses in our side

81
Q

What is counterattitudinal?

A

When people disagree with us, we ignore non-experts but we scrutinise experts in order to better counter them

82
Q

How do we relate to brands?

A
  • Brands are social objects

- So perceived in terms of intentions and ability

83
Q

What emotional responses do brand dimensions elicit?

A
  • Pity
  • Contempt
  • Envy
  • Admiration
84
Q

What effects to strong brand relationships have?

A
  • Loyalty beyond habit
  • Contribute to the self concept
  • Resistance to negative info about the brand
85
Q

What is anthromorphism?

A
  • Attribution of human characteristics to inanimate objects, animals, etc
86
Q

Where is anthromorphism used in persuasion?

A
  • In branding whereby brands themselves are anthropomorphised
  • Product design whereby products have human features
  • Have a positive effect on product impressions
87
Q

What do entity theorists believe?

A
  • Expect behaviour to be consistent over time

- Characterised a person based on a single act

88
Q

What do incremental theorists believe?

A
  • Believe that behaviour changes with context

- Do not expect behaviour to be stable over time

89
Q

How do audiences try to resist persuasion?

A
  • Avoidance
  • Contesting
  • Empowering
90
Q

What is conformity?

A

Aligning one’s behaviour or expressed attitudes and beliefs with social norms oe others’ behaviour. Conformity does not require internalisation

91
Q

What are norms?

A

Implicit or explicit rules or principles that guide of constrain behaviour. Norms are understood by members of a group and applied without the force of laws.

92
Q

What is normative influence?

A

involves a change in behaviour that is deemed necessary in order to fit in a particular group
e.g. going along with the crowd

93
Q

Why do we conform?

A
  • Informational influence
  • Normative influence
  • Referent informatinal influence
94
Q

what is informational influence?

A

When one accepts information from another as evidence about reality
e.g. ‘they must know something I don’t know’

95
Q

What is referent informational influence?

A

When one conforms to the norm of a group when one’s membership in that group is important or salient
e.g. ‘that’s what people like me do’

96
Q

What are illusory norms?

A
  • not always obvious when you go into the real world what the norms are and because of that ambiguity there is ambiguity in how we behave
97
Q

What is the false consensus effect?

A

When one overestimates the degree to which attitudes or beliefs are shared by others

98
Q

What is pluralistic ignorance?

A

Conforming to what one mistakenly believes is the majority view, despite not personally endorsing it

99
Q

How do emotions link to norm transmission?

A

The idea is that moral emotions specificslly, help to spread norms

100
Q

What are the emotional costs of nonconformity?

A

Guilt, shame, embarassment, humiliation

101
Q

What are the social costs of nonconformity?

A

Isolation, ostracism, perceived as disruptive

102
Q

What is the Black Sheep Effect?

A

The costs of nonconformity can be particularly harsh for ingroup deviants

103
Q

What are the costs of nonconformity in tight cultures?

A

Stong norms and low tolerance of deviant behaviour

104
Q

What are the costs of nonconformity in loose cultures?

A

Weak social norms and high tolerance of deviant behaviour

105
Q

When have participants been known to show the most moral outrage?

A

When they learn of norm violation online

106
Q

What is traceability?

A

The degree to which behaviour in the game would be identifiable

107
Q

What is gossipy-ness?

A

tendency to talk about others and tendency to gossip

108
Q

What is an advantage of gossip?

A

It provides a moderating effect on pro-group behaviour

109
Q

What are the benefits of nonconformity?

A

Status and Power

110
Q

Does nonconformity signal status?

A

Yes - to experts

Yes - within high prestige contexts

111
Q

What is the Robin Hood effect?

A

The notion that nonconformity signals that one would make a good leader when that nonconformity is prosocial

112
Q

What is descriptive deviance?

A

Diverge from the average group attitude in a direction consistent with the desirable group attitude

113
Q

What is prescriptive deviance?

A

Diverge from the average group attitude in a direction inconsistent with the desirable group attitude

114
Q

When do people feel as though violence is more acceptable?

A

When they feel as though it was a moral issue - particularly strong pattern when PPs believed that their morals converged with those of the majority

115
Q

What is convergent-divergent theory?

A
  • Diverging from the majority is threatening, so people inhibit their own thoughts that are at odds with those views
  • Diverging from the minority is not threatening, so people are comfortable entertaining minority viewpoints
116
Q

What is the conversion effect?

A

Individuals accept the majority view passively but actively engage in a validation process with the minority view.

117
Q

What is a tipping point for social change?

A

When the size of the minority reaches a specific proportion of the population, norms flip quickly and dramatically so that the minority attitude, belief, or behaviour becomes the norm

118
Q

When do groups reach a tipping point?

A

When the minority is about 25%

119
Q

What is a vocal minority?

A

group that voices an opinion that the majority of people don’t agree with

120
Q

Whar is externalism?

A

Learning depends upon other people’s knowledge

121
Q

What is transactive memory?

A

The memory of a group includes information shared between individuals

122
Q

What is the illusion of explanator depth?

A

Individuals overestimate their knowledge of a topic until they are asked to explain it in greater detail

123
Q

What is the Community-of-Knowledge hypothesis?

A
  • People fail to distinguish their own knowledge from other people’s knowledge
  • Merely believing that someone else understands a topic leads us to believe we know more about that same topic

Social, Personality, and Abnormal (4 decks)

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