psychology and inclusion

Question 1

what is inclusion

Answer 1

• more than just ‘placement’ within a mainstream setting
• ongoing process
• how a school provision is adapted & re-organised
• hehir et al. (2016) - inclusion supports in improving quality of life, relationships & opportunity to participate fully

Question 2

hierarchy of inclusion

frederickson & cline (2015)

Answer 2

1. physical inclusion
2. social inclusion
3. instructional inclusion
4. communication and collaboration
5. empowerment

Question 3

salamanca statement

Answer 3

• 92 countries signed up to the principles of inclusion (UNESCO, 1994)
• ensuring equity of access (UK)
• right to education (global)

Question 4

education 2030 framework for action

Answer 4

emphasised inclusion and equity as foundations for quality education (UNESCO, 2015)

Question 5

inchean declaration

Answer 5

• overall goal of ensuring education for all
• emphasised the need for equality of opportunity in educational contexts (UNESCO, 2015)

Question 6

systemic barriers to inclusion

Answer 6

• teacher confidence in ability to include e.g. instructional & motivational strategies
• staff attitudes to SEN & disability
• leadership attitudes
• school beh systems
• availability of resources to support classroom teachers
• peer attitudes to SEN & disability
• external accountability, measurements of school: exam league tables, ofsted

Question 7

dignath et al. (2022)

further reading

Answer 7

• teachers’ belief systems about the inclusion of students with SEN may explain gaps between policy and practice
• investigated three inter-related aspects of teachers’ belief systems: cognitive appraisals, emotional appraisals and self-efficacy
• on average, teachers neither endorse nor reject inclusive education
• in-service teachers need stronger self-efficacy beliefs
• SEN teachers experience more positive cognitive appraisals toward inclusion
• belief systems about inclusive education can be improved through interventions
• practical experience in inclusive classrooms forecasts cognitive appraisals but not point in one’s career or practical experience with people with SEN
• longer interventions are not necessarily better

Question 8

historical perspective of inclusion in UK

Answer 8

• first UK special schools - 1760s
• until mid 1960s - children with severe learning difficulties didn’t attend school but LA ‘training centres’
• 1970 - distinction between those who were & weren’t ‘educable’ was removed in Education (Handicapped) Children Act
• 1981 Education Act

Question 9

1981 education act

children would be in ordinary schools where:

Answer 9

• their needs could be met
• the education of others wasn’t disrupted
• parents were supportive
• the arrangements represented an efficient use of resources - educational resources of others

Question 10

integration

Answer 10

• limited arrangements for CYP in schools w/ SEN which have little change
• process where onus is on the ind to “change” so they can fit in

Question 11

research into inclusion

Answer 11

• typically: comparative studies (included/excluded) compared on basis of outcomes
• educational attainment
• affective measures - self-esteem, social integration, ‘adjustment’

Question 12

research problems (inclusion)

lambert & frederickson (201)

Answer 12

• when we evaluate ‘inclusion’ we need t o be aware that the nature and standard of ‘inclusive practices’ vart greatly
• difficulties specifying the IV - many different views of what inclusion is
• poor matching of ppts - children w/ SEN have additional problems
• mainstream & special settings tend to have diff objectives –> diff curricula emphasis
• diffs between teacher experience & qualification between & within settings (e.g. PGCE vs ITT routes)

Question 13

hegarty (1993)

Answer 13

• summarised a centre for educational research and innovation (CERI) review of international research literature on integration efficacy studies across countries & diff SEN
• reported results were generally inconclusive but generally inclusion better
• argued that this makes it difficult to justify continued segregated education

Question 14

lindsay (2007); lindsay et al. (2020)

Answer 14

• review of efficacy studies published in SEN journals between 2000-2005
• by 2020 - 1373 ‘inclusion’ papers were considered
• only 1% addressing efficacy issues (comparing performance of children w/ SEN in mainstream and special, or comparing the performance of children w/ SEN in mainstream settings with their typically developing peers)
• weight of ev was marginally in favour of inclusion

Question 15

gresham & macmillan (1997)

Answer 15

• a particular focus on social & affective outcomes (an early objective)
• suggested children w/ SEN placed in mainstream settings are less socially accepted & more rejected by their mainstream peers than children w/o additional need
• suggests that inclusion isn’t beneficial - but only on this one measure

Question 16

psychological theories relevant to inclusion

Answer 16

• theory of planned behaviour
• contact theory
• labelling and attribution theory
• social exchange theory

Question 17

theory of planned behaviour

ajzen (1991)

Answer 17

3 major influences on behaviour = attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control

a pupil’s inteaction with a child w/ SEN can be viewed in light of this model

Question 18

roberts & lindsell (1997)

Answer 18

• 8-12yos attitudes to peers w/ physical disabilities strongly predicted their intention to interact with them
• their attitudes correlated significantly with their teachers & mothers (subjective norm)
• attitudes predicting behaviours
• supported by roberts & smith (1999): children’s attitudes & their PBC were significant predictors of their intention to interact with children w/ physical disabilities

Question 19

contact theory

allport (1954)

Answer 19

• contact between groups can change the attitudes of in-group members towards out-groups & can reduce stereotyping & prejudice
• 4 conditions are necessary: equal status, common goals, no competition between groups, authority sanctioning the contact

Question 20

maras & brown (1996)

ev for contact theory

Answer 20

• primary aged children in contact with children from a speical school developed +ve social orientation to the pupils than a control group who didnt have contact with them & who demonstrated little attitudinal change
• highlights important of mainstream schools - opportunity for contact
• without this context there was fixed attitudes from both groups about the others

Question 21

marom et al. (2007)

ev for contact theory

Answer 21

• intervention to improve disability related attitudes of 10-12yos
• as well as self-efficacy for interacting with children w/ disabilities
• intervention 2 phases: provide info about the children & their disabilities & ppl with disabilities in general; facilitate contact between two groups via joint, non-competitive activities
• reported improvements in attitudes & self-efficacy of students with no change in control group

Question 22

cameron & rutland (2006), cameron et al. (2011)

ev for contact theory

Answer 22

• extended contact & imagined contact reduce prejudice
• increase warmth & empathy
• can be used to support a class in preparing for direct contact & where opportunities for direct contact are limited
• extended contact over time ensures relationships are built better

Question 23

labelling

Answer 23

• labelling has long been assumed to have a -ve effect: serving as a self-fulfilling prophecy
• research drawing on contact theory however suggests stressing difference may be beneficial in creation of optimal inclusive environments

Question 24

law et al. (2007)

Answer 24

• attitudes of 11-12yos to children with ADHD diagnoses were assessed through use of vignettes
• attitudes were mainly -ve & a diagnostic label was found to have no additional influence on the attitude or behavioural intentions
• behaviours not the label have greatest impact (behaviours considered same way regardless of medical diagnosis)

Question 25

attribution theory | weiner (1985)

Answer 25

* when faced with -ve behaviours, children will search for an explanation * they will attribute causation for those behaviours * someone who is perceived to be responsible for their actions will elicit a more -ve response than someone who is not held to be responsible

Question 26

siegelman & begley (1987)

Answer 26

* 5-6 & 8-9yos * told about peers who were either in a wheelchair, obese, learning disabled or aggressive - range of needs * were presented with a problem faced by the child & given either: no causal information, causal information that implied (un)controllability * children in both age groups were responsive to the causal information when available & assigned blame according to ascribed responsibility

Question 27

social exchange theory

Answer 27

* the want of association with others is determined by the costs & benefit of interacting with them to the individual compared with the minimum expectation they have from the association * behavioural norms are the biggest influence on social acceptance for CYP without SEN but this doesnt map onto children with SEN * social environmental influence the interaction in the classroom between peers with and without SEN, school ethos around learning & understanding enhanced attitudes towards CYP with SEN

Question 28

BPS (2022) on inclusion implications for educational psychology

Answer 28

* stress impact of environment or systemic factors that contribute to a child's needs --> move away from dichotomous thinking and individually oriented 'deficit model' approaches * use skills in applying psychology to opt towards collaborative solutions --> facilitate inclusive pedagogies * use research findings to support the development of educationalists as reflective practitioners to promote a sense of belonging * developing processes and new technology can enhance the capacity of learning environments to meet the learning needs of all their students * demonstrate and model in every aspect of their professional practice on acceptance of difference and a celebration of diversity * work closely with students and colleagues in education - attitudes and values expected of citizens in an inclusive society are developed

Question 29

intervention of inclusion at a systemic level

Answer 29

* teacher & student attitudes towards SEN * teacher self-efficacy: differentiation, relational strategies? * culture & leadership attitudes (subjective norm)