PSYCHOLOGY 3/4 Flashcards
What are the 3 main roles of the Nervous System?
- Reception.
- Process.
- Respond.
Reception
Receives sensory stimuli. Internal and external. eg heart rate.
Process
Making sense or interpretation.
Respond
Physical action. eg using skeletal muscle - internal muscle.
eg. sweat.
Central Nervous System.
- Brain
- Spinal cord ( Spinal Reflex )
Peripheral Nervous System.
Contains all of the neurons/nerves outside of the CNS. Carries information to the spinal cord, and then from the spinal cord to connect the brain with voluntary muscles, sensory receptors, and involuntary muscles.
Somatic.
Voluntary skeletal muscles.
Sensory and Motor neurons.
Sensory
Afferent, towards the CNS.
Motor
Efferent, away CNS.
Autonomic
Involuntry.
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
Sympathetic
Prepares the body for action, responding to a threat.
Flight or Fight.
eg. Dilated pupils, increased heart rate, bladder relaxes, digestion stops.
Parasympathetic
Homeostasis. A level of calm.
eg. Heart rate decreases, temperature decreases.
Fight or Flight
Response for survival when under threat.
Interneurons
Afferent and Efferent, in the CNS.
Effector
Muscle - whatever is having the effect.
Receptor
Detects the stimulus.
Spinal Reflex.
Involuntary, unconscious. Somatic.
Response to certain potentially damaging stimuli without the involvement of the brain. It is automatically reflected back from the spinal cord.
Dendrites
Receive messages from other cells - receptors, other neurons.
Receive information using receptor sites.
The information exits in the form of neurotransmitters which are chemicals.
Cell body (soma)
Converts the chemical neurotransmitter message to an electrical message known as an action potential.
Axon
Carries the action potential (electrical message).
Axon terminal
Receives electrical messages and releases stored neurotransmitter chemicals.
Types of neurochemicals
Neurotransmitters
Neuromodulators
Neurotransmitters
- used at a single synapse.
- ONE post-synaptic neuron responds.
Glutamate + GABA.
Neuromodulator
- at any multiple synapses.
- MANY post-synaptic neurons respond.
Dopamine + Serotonin.
Glutamate
Memory - Neurotransmitter (Excitatory)
Dopamine
Pleasure - Neuromodulator (Excitatory)
Serotonin
Mood - Neuromodulator (Inhibitory).
GABA
Calming - Neurotransmitter (Inhibitory)
Excitatory
Increased chance of action potential/release electrical impulse/fire.
Inhibitory
Decreased chance of action potential/release electrical impulse/fire.
Threshold
Excitatory: Once over the threshold, the post-synaptic neuron has reached action potential.
Inhibitory: Decreases until resting.
Neurotransmitters’ effects on postsynaptic neuron….
Excitatory & Inhibitory.
Neuromodulators affect neurotransmitters in 2 ways…
- Changes responsiveness of receptor sites, enhancing the excitatory or inhibitory effects of a transmitter.
- Changes the release pattern of a neurotransmitter from the pre-synaptic neuron.
Neural plasticity
Changes to the neuron.
-Learning.
-Brain Damage.
-Less frequent use.
Sprouting
Neurons develop new branches on dendrites or axons. (due to damage)
- Dendrites become bushier when used more frequently.
- Axon terminal appendages increase in number.
Rerouting
-New connections between neurons.
-Injury and damage response.
Pruning.
Undamaged neurons form new connections with one another.
Reduction in connections when stimulation of a synapse is repeatedly weakened over time.
Long-term potentiation. LTP
Strengthening of synapses, more neurotransmitters, and receptor sites increase OVER TIME.
Communication is strengthened because the neuron can reach the threshold more quickly.
More stimulation because a higher number of neurotransmitters and receptors are binding.
Long-term depression. LTD
Repeated, WEAKENED stimulation signals to the pre-synaptic neuron, to reduce the number of neurotransmitters and to the post-synaptic neuron to reduce the number of receptor sites OVER TIME.
Stress
An individual experiences in response to an event.
A psychobiological process.
Subjective.
Stress - Biological.
Involuntary - Fight or Flight.
Stress - Psychological.
Emotional + Cognitive.
2 different types of Stressors
Internal + External.
Internal Stressor
- Body (within)
eg. a memory.
External Stressor
- Outside of body.
eg. assignment.
Acute
Short term.
Occurs quickly
Fight/Flight - Sympathetic.
Freeze - Parasympathetic.
Adrenaline.
Chronic
Long term.
Builds up over time.
Ongoing, cumulative.
Cortisol - a stress hormone.
Eustress
a POSITIVE perception of a stressor.
Distress
a NEGATIVE perception of stress.
Role of Cortisol
- Released in Chronic Stress + FFF.
- Maintains arousal allowing the body to deal with stress for a longer period of time.
- Turns off unnecessary body systems at the time.
- Excessive Cortisol over a prolonged period of time inhibits the immune system.
Seyles General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)
Resistance to stress.
1. Alarm Reaction Stage.
2. Resistance Stage.
3. Exhaustion Stage.
Alarm Reaction Stage.
Consists of:
Shock and Countershock.
Shock (Alarm)
Parasympathetic - Freeze Response.
Shock (Alarm) symptoms/effects.
- Heart rate decreases.
- Temperature drops.
- Breathing rate decreases.
Preparing for Fight/Flight.
Countershock (Alarm)
Sympathetic - Fight/Flight.
Adrenaline and Noradrenaline Hormones.
Countershock (Alarm) symptoms/effects.
Heart rate increases.
Breathing rate increases.
Temperature rises.
Acute response to deal with stressors.
Resistance Stage.
Release of cortisol, energies the body to resist stressors.
- As resistance continues cortisol suppresses the immune system.
Resistance Stage symptoms and effects.
- More energy; if stress is chronic; ongoing, cumulative and/or severe.
- As resistance continues, frequent infections can occur (eg. Colds).
Exhaustion stage.
Bodies resources are depleted.
Exhaustion stage symptoms/effects.
- Severe fatigue
- Diabetes, type II –> lifestyle (increased chance).
- Severe weight loss/gain.
GAS Limitations.
- Research not conducted on humans.
- Does not account for individual differences and psychological factors.
GAS Strengths.
- Measures a predictable pattern that can be measured in individuals.
- If stress is not prolonged, stages are still experienced. Therefore tracks biological patterns in different types of stress.
- Greater the intensity of the stressor the greater the physiological response.
Lazarus + Folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping.
Stressor —-> Benign/Irrelevant
|
v
Stressful.
- Primary Appraisal -> unconscious evaluation.
Threat ( Future ).
Harm/Loss (Past)
Challenge ( Eustress ) -> benefit.
Secondary Appraisal -> Conscious decision.
“Are there sufficient recourses to cope?”
YES –> Reappraised as NOT stressful.
NO –> Distress is experienced.
Strategies to cope with stress.
Approach + Avoidant
Approach Strategy.
A strategy that reduces/eliminates stress. It is a DIRECT strategy.
Avoidant Strategy.
Reduces the stress response, but the stressor is not affected.
An appropriate strategy if no way to directly combat the stressor.
It’s Maladaptive meaning it makes the stressor worse.
approach + avoidant example.
You have a psychology SAC, on Friday that you want to pass.
Approach: Revise in Advance.
Avoidant: Go out with friends to distract yourself. Procrastination.
Context-specific effectiveness
Selection of a coping strategy that is appropriate for the stressor. THE RIGHT ONE TO DEAL WITH THE STRESSOR.
Coping Flexibility.
Recognising that a coping strategy isn’t working, and changing the coping strategy so it does.
NOT THE RIGHT ONE ANYMORE - HAVING TO CHANGE.
Gut-Brain axis.
Gut to the brain.
Brain to the gut.
Enteric Nervous System
Nerve pathways within the GI (gastrointestinal) track link to the brain.
Gut microbiota
all of the microorganisms that live in the gut
Gut microbiome
Microbiota. collective term for a population of microbiota in a defined environment (includes the genes of microbes)
Gut-Brain Axis (GBA)
the bidirectional connection between the gut and the brain through the enteric and central nervous systems
Vagus nerve
the longest cranial nerve that connects the gut and the brain, enabling them to communicate
Good for your gut health. :)
Fermented food.
—> Miso Soup.
—> Kimchi.
Microbiota is good gut bacteria.
Bad for your gut health. :(
- Antibiotics.
- Poor food choices.
—> High-fat diets.
—> Sugar (high).
Good microbiota health controls some stress hormone levels.
Communicates with the brain via. the vagus nerve to control neurotransmitter release in the brain.
HPA axis
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
difference and similarity between neurotransmitters and neuromodulators.
Difference: Neurotransmitters have an effect on one or two synapses, whilst neuromodulators have an effect on multiple synapses.
Similarity: Both must bind to a specific receptor site to have an effect.
What are the behaviourist approaches to learning?
Classical Conditioning and Operant conditioning.
What is classical conditioning?
A simple form of learning; occurs through the repeated association of 2 different stimuli, producing a naturally occurring response.
The learner is PASSIVE: involuntary responses.
eg. Salivation + Blinking.
Behaviourism.
The psychological approach proposes that learning occurs by interacting with the external environment.
Neutral stimulus
Produces no significant response prior to conditioning; same as Conditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus.
Produces an unconscious response, a naturally made response.
Unconditioned response.
Naturally occurring behaviour in response to stimuli; same as a conditioned response.
Conditioned stimulus.
Produces a conditioned response after repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus; same as the neutral stimulus.
Conditioned response.
The response that occurs involuntarily after the conditioned stimulus is presented; is the same as an unconditioned response.
3 phases of learning - Classical Conditioning.
- Before conditioning.
- During conditioning.
- After conditioning.
Before conditioning
Neutral stimulus –> produces no relevant response.
The unconditioned stimulus causes the Unconditioned response.
eg.
(NS)Bell –> no relevant response.
(UCS) Food –> (UCR)Salivation.
During conditioning
The neutral stimulus is immediately followed by the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly associated with the unconditioned response.
The neutral stimulus was repeatedly associated with the unconditioned stimulus producing the unconditioned response.
eg.
(NS) Bell immediately followed by (UCS)Food —> (UCR)Salivation.
After conditioning.
Conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response.
eg.
(CS) Bell –> (CR) Salivation.
Operant Conditioning.
- Learning; Behaviour becomes controlled by consequences.
- Voluntary Behaviour –> decides the behaviour.
- Active; The learner is involved in the learning.
Operant 3-phase process.
Antecedent
Behaviour
Consequence
Antecedent
Situation/environment that allows the learner to decide on the behaviour.
Stimulus conditions that exist in the environment prior to the response.
Behaviour.
The action.
Response; voluntary behaviour.
Consequence
Result of your actions; applied to the response.
Reinforcement and Punishment.
Reinforcement
Any stimulus that strengthens or increases a response.
Makes the repetition of behaviour more likely.
More likely to repeat behaviour.
2 types:
Positive.
Negative.
Positive Reinforcement.
Applied, given(desired). Reward that strengthens a response
eg. Lollies, praise.
Negative Reinforcement.
Taking away (unpleasant). Reduction or prevention of an unpleasant stimulus.
eg. Removing pain, less homework.
Punishment.
Less likely to repeat the behaviour.
Makes repetition of behaviour less likely.
2 types:
Positive
Response cost (negative).
Positive Punishment.
Apply (unpleasant).
Something unpleasant is applied.
eg. Pain, labour (extra work).
Response cost (Negative punishment).
Take away (desired)
Something desired is removed.
eg. jail time, loss of freedom.
Is punishment always effective?
Depends on the time and consistency.
Must fit the crime; not too harsh or too soft.
The limitation is that it doesn’t teach what’s right, only what’s wrong.
Classical VS Operant.
Operant; Conscious –> voluntary/choice.
Classical; Unconscious.
Observational learning (social cognitive approaches to learning)
Steps of learning; watching someone do something and then doing the same.
Observing the behaviour of a model, and the consequence of those behaviours, in order to guide future behaviours.
Learning by watching someone’s behaviour.
Can be immediate or latent. (learning now, behaviour shown later)
Active.
Modelled behaviour.
Steps of Observational Learning.
Attention.
Retention.
Reproduction.
Motivation.
Reinforcement.
Attention.
Actively watching the behaviour of the model and the consequences of said behaviour (focus).
Retention.
Making a mental representation of the behaviour.
Reproduction.
The learner needs to have the capability to repeat the behaviour.
Motivation.
Desire to reproduce that behaviour; doing it.
Influenced by the model.
Reinforcement (Observational)
Learner (direct) –> watcher.
Model (indirect) –> Vicarious reinforcement; reward + consequence.
Aboriginal connection to country.
Ongoing life responsibilities, to the land where a person is born or where their ancestors were born.
eg. Land, Seasons, Waterways, Culture.
Aboriginal ways of knowing.
Learning is relational and interconnected, taking place in a community where family and kin learn from each other.
Connections between concepts are highlighted and understood; holistic.
Aboriginal systems of knowledge.
Knowledge and skills are based on interconnected social, physical and spiritual understandings. Inform survival and contribute to a strong sense of identity.
Developed by communities working together and sharing traditional expertise/knowledge.
Informed by culture; who can learn what and where.
Aboriginal Multimodal System of Learning
Approaches to learning are multimodal by nature; use a variety of methods.
- Story sharing.
- Learning maps.
- Artwork.
- Community links.
- Non-verbal; dance.
- Pattern of nature; seasons.
Aboriginal Learning Embedded in Relationships.
Deeply embedded in relationships
- Between concepts.
- Learner and Teacher.
- Individuals and families.
Learning begins with the relationship between the learner and the teacher. and understanding connections between people.
Family-based learning, teaching themselves.
Aboriginal KinShip
Connections to country.
Complex and Diverse.
Individual relationships and responsibilities to country and people.
Individual and group rights.
Scaffolding knowledge.
Disrupted Kinship = Disrupted Knowledge.
Aboriginal; Patterned(created) on country.
- Country is everything; its family, life and connection.
- Contains complex ideas; Law, place, custom, identity, and family.
Acknowledging country.
Shows respect towards the Traditional owners, and acknowledges Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ownership and custodianship of the land, ancestors and traditions.
Welcome to the country.
Goes back to when visitors had to wait to be welcomed into a camp/ceremony.
being welcomed to the country means you are talking to spiritual ancestors; saying they can come through.
Trust in doing no harm.
Models of memory
Storage + retrieval of information required through learning.
Internal record/representation of some prior event or experience.
Encoding
Converting information to a storeable form.
Storage.
Retaining information in memory over time.
Retrieval.
Locating and recovering the stored information from memory when needed so that we can use it.
Atkinson - Shiffren’s Multi-store model of memory.
Stimuli -> Sensory memory —(Attention)–> Short term memory —(Encoding)–> Long Term Memory
(Retrieval; back to short term, LTM to STM) (Elaborative rehersal. STM to LTM)
Sensory memory.
0.3-4 seconds.
iconic(light)
0.2-0.4seconds.
echoic memory(sound)
4seconds.
UNLIMITED CAPACITY.
Short-term memory.
Working memory.
Duration of up to 30 seconds.
Capacity of (5-9) items.
Increase capacity by ‘chunking’
Long-term memory
Storage.
Duration is unlimited.
Capacity unlimited.
Improving the capacity of STM.
Chunking; grouping items together so they are counted as one.
Improving duration of STM.
Maintenance rehearsal; repetition.
Elaborative rehearsal.
Making ‘meaning’ from the information.
Types of long-term memory
Explicit (consciously); Semantic and Episodic.
Implicit (unconscious); Procedural (voluntary and fine) classical conditioned (Emotional and Reflexive).
Explicit
Semantic; ‘facts’
ENCODED BY HIPPOCAMPUS.
Episodic; ‘personally relevant’ eg. birthdate.
ENCODED BY HIPPOCAMPUS.
Implicit
Procedural; ‘how to’
Voluntary motor movement, eg. kicking a ball. ENCODED BY BASAL GANGLIA.
Fine motor movement, eg. posture. ENCODED BY CEREBELLUM.
Classical conditioned.
Emotional; ‘fear’
ENCODED BY AMYGDALA
Reflexive; involuntary eg. blinking.
ENCODED BY CEREBELLUM.
Hippocampus
Encodes new explicit semantic and episodic memories.
Aids with making new memories
Acts in coordination with the amygdala.
Damage = recall of memories; no new memories.
Amygdala.
Processing/regulating emotional reactions.
Classically conditioned emotional response - encoding.
Adrenalin - Increases emotional arousal and activates the release of noradrenaline, stimulating the Amygdala.
The amygdala regulates the hippocampus.
Damage = difficulty processing memory and emotional response.
Neocortex
Process, store and retrieve explicit memories.
Memory is distributed widely throughout the neocortex.
Retrieval of an entire memory - requires retrieval of different aspects of the experience from different areas of the neocortex.
Basal Ganglia
Encodes motor component of implicit procedural memories (voluntary).
Voluntary motor movement.
Parkinson’s; damage to Basal Ganglia.
Stores memories of implicit(habituation) learning
Cerebellum.
Encodes and stores implicit procedural memories (fine motor movement).
Simple reflexes learned by classical conditioning.
Balance, posture and fine motor movement.
Elaborative Rehearsal.
- Makes connections between components of new memory information.
The more connections = the easier to retrieve information.
Retrieval cues.
Connections between new and existing information act as a retrieval cue.
Improves the ability to locate the information in the neocortex and recall back to STM.
eg. Smells that are similar remind us of other experiences. Linked exposure
Autobiographical events.
Activates both semantic and episodic components.
Retrieval of an event from both episodic (personally relevant) and semantic (factual) components.
Retrieval of Autobiographical events.
LTM is back to STM. (conscious awareness).
A simple memory involves retrieval from many storage locations.
From there, the memory is reconstructed to form a whole (jigsaw) –> anything missing is ‘filled in’ using semantic memories.
The hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of…
Episodic memory.
Frontal (neocortex) and temporal lobes retrieval of…
Semantic memory.
Constructing possible imagined futures.
Hypothetical experiences + situations.
eg. what you are going to do tomorrow.
Episodic - Imagined future; subjective.
- relive the past and use the past experiences to imagine the future.
Semantic - envision possible scenarios.
- consistent and fit in.
Alzheimer’s disease.
Neurogenerative disease - the progressive loss of neurons. (a form of dementia)
Symptoms: Decrease in cognitive functions, personality change, change in mood/emotion.
Hippocampus.
- Encodes + consolidates new explicit memories.
- Retireves episodic memories.
Damage:
- New memories will not be encoded.
Therefore not stored - No explicit memory.
Gradual Progression.
Death of neurons accumulates.
More of the hippocampus is affected.
- Less encoding (forget more explicit memories)
- Retrieval of your episodic memories reduced.
- Overtime neocortex is affected.
- IMPLICIT MEMORIES UNAFFECTED.
2 types of legions.
Amyloid plaques.
Neurofibrillary tangles.
Amyloid plaques.
fragments of the protein beta-amyloid accumulate into insoluble plaques that inhibit communication between neurons.
Neuron dies; no nutrients.
Neurofibrillary tangles.
accumulation of the protein tau that forms insoluble tangles within a neuron, inhibiting the transportation of essential substances and eventually killing the neuron.
TANGLES = NO SIGNAL = DEATH OF NEURON.
Aphantasia.
Individuals lack the capacity to generate a mental image.
- Visual representation and experiences of sensory information without the presence of sensory stimuli.
- Organised in short-term and transferred to long-term memory to recreate perceptual experiences.
Semantic memories may remain intact, the visual component of these memories may also be lacking.
Mnemonics
Improve coding and therefore retrieval.
Written cultures:
- Acronyms.
- Acrostic.
- Method of loci.
Acronyms.
Chunking
- encodes less information at a particular time.
- cues for retrieval ( each letter is a cue for retrieval).
Uses the first letter of each word to produce a pronounceable phrase.
eg. KFC –> Kentucky Fried Chicken.
Acrostic
Uses the first letter of words to create: phrases, poems and rhymes
eg.
D danger
R response
S send for help
A airways
B Breathing
C CPR
Method of loci
- using a familiar environment.
- memory associations between the environment and the target words that need to be remembered.
eg. house –> Mental image of a room.
–> Associate term switch a different aspect
(eg. furniture) in the room.
8 ways of learning, ABORIGINAL
- Story Sharing.
- Learning Maps.
- Non-Verbal.
- Symbols + Images.
- Non-linear.
- Land links.- Community links.
- Deconstruct/reconstruct.
Story sharing.
Learning through narrative. Verbal.
Learning Maps.
Planning and visualising process and knowledge.
Non-Verbal.
Dance, art; observation.
Symbols and Images.
images, symbols and metaphors.
Non-linear.
Knowledge from different viewpoints.
Land Links.
Inherently linked to nature, land and country.
Community Links
Local values, needs and knowledge are shared with others.
Deconstruct/reconstruct.
knowledge is broken down from whole to parts and applied knowledge.
The learner is guided through each turn of knowledge.
Songlines.
Oral; knowledge from stories, and songlines.
Recall information about the country using songlines.
Stories linking to important aspects of countries
To remember information about country; land, sky and seas.
Consciousness
Level of awareness an individual has over their thoughts, feelings, perceptions and existence.
What are the 2 different types of Consciousness?
- Normal Waking Consciousness.
- Altered State of Consciousness.
Normal waking consciousness
An individual is awake and aware of thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
eg. Awake.
Altered state of consciousness.
Characteristically different from normal waking consciousness in terms of awareness, thoughts and feelings.
Induced: Occurs due to a purposeful action or aid. eg. drunk + hallucination.
Naturally: Occurs without intervention. eg. Sleep + Daydreaming.
Consciousness continuum
Visual representation of consciousness, progressing from lower levels to higher levels of awareness.
What is Sleep?
Regular and naturally occurring altered states of consciousness involving loss of awareness and disengagement with external and internal stimuli.
What are the 2 different types of sleep?
Rapid Eye Movement - REM
Non-Rapid Eye Movement - NREM
Psychological construct
Phenomena that is believed to exist, but can’t be directly measured.
REM
Rapid eye movement.
High levels of brain activity and low levels of physical activity.
NREM
Non-Rapid eye movement.
Lack of eye movement is divided into 3 different Stages: NREM 1, NREM 2, and NREM 3.
NREM 1
- Light sleep
- Hypnagogic stage; hypnic jerks.
- Easily woken.
- Hear faint sounds; loses awareness of themselves and their surroundings.
NREM 2
- Truly asleep.
- Relatively light sleep –> brainwaves occurring.
- Most of the time asleep.
NREM 3
- Deep sleep.
- Difficult to wake; disoriented.
- Most likely to experience sleepwalking and talking.
Sleep episode
Full duration of time asleep
Made up of multiple repeated cycles of REM and NREM sleep.
Sleep Cycle
An approximately 90-minute period that repeats during a sleep episode in which an individual progresses through the REM and NREM stages of sleep.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)
- Detects amplifies and records brain activity –> brainwaves.
- When neurons communicate this device can detect impulses.
- Cords are attached to a person’s head.
- High Frequency and Low amplitude in REM
Frequency
No. of brain waves that occur per second.
Amplitude
Intensity + height of brain waves.
The types of brainwaves
Beta
Alph
Theta
Delta
Beta
High frequency and low amplitude.
Alph
High frequency (lower than beta) and low amplitude (higher than beta).
Theta
Medium frequency and Medium-high amplitude.
Delta
Low frequency and high amplitude.
Electromyograph (EMG)
- Detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the body muscles.
- Attached to the skin above the muscles.
DURING REM: low activity; low levels of physiological activity.
DURING NREM: medium/moderate activity; some physiological activity.
Electro-oculograph (EOG)
- Detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of muscles responsible for eye movement.
- Attached to the skin above eye muscles.
DURING REM: Rapid eye movement; high activity.
DURING NREM: No rapid eye movement; low activity.
Sleep diaries
Self-reported descriptions of an individual’s own sleeping periods.
Records the:
- Duration.
- Quality.
- Thoughts + Feelings before and after going to sleep.
- Behaviours before and after going to sleep.
- No. of times sleep was disrupted.
Video Monitoring
Use of cameras and audio technologies to record an individual’s sleep.
Records:
- Sleep-walking.
- Movements + activities.
- Useful for individuals with sleeping disorders to monitor behaviours.
- Validity for a phenomenon.
- Subjective.
Biological rhythms
Repeated Biological processes that are regulated by internal mechanisms.
- Circadian + Ultradian.
Circadian Rhythm
24-hour repeated cycle, transitioning between being sleep and awake, controlled by the SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) in response to external (changes in light - release in melatonin) and internal (genes on/off) stimuli.
Sleep-wake cycle.
A 24-hour cycle that makes up the time asleep and time spent awake + alert.
Ultradian Rhythm
Biological and behavioural changes that occur in a cycle and last less than 24 hours.
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
Area of the hypothalamus that is responsible for regulating an individual’s sleep-wake patterns.
- Receives information from both external and internal environments.
EXTERNAL: information from the environment; absence/presence of light.
INTERNAL: Originates in the body.
How do we fall asleep?
Information from our environmental cues dictates the messages the SCN sends to the pineal gland, which is responsible for the production and release of melatonin.
What is melatonin?
Hormones are released by the pineal gland typically at night time to induce sleep as part of the sleep-wake cycle.
Makes an individual feel more calm and relaxed.
SCN regulates the sleep-wake cycle
- SCN retrieves external + internal cues.
- SCN sends neural messages to the pineal gland to produce and release melatonin.
- Pineal gland releases melatonin into the bloodstream, promoting a feeling of calm and relaxation, therefore promoting sleep.
- Wake up due to the release of cortisol (adrenal gland) in the morning, therefore feeling more alert.
NEWBORN 1-15 days.
16 hours
50% REM 50% NREM
REM sleep is significantly high as they are experiencing rapid brain development.
INFANCY 3-24 months.
13.5 hours
35% REM 65% NREM
REM sleep is significantly high as they are experiencing rapid brain development.
CHILDHOOD 2-14 years
11 hours
Approx 20% REM 80% NREM
Time spent in REM starts to reduce as the pace of brain development settles.
ADOLESCENCE 14-18 years
9 hours
20% REM 80% NREM
Sleep patterns can change due to many social factors, therefore decreasing the amount of sleep an individual may have. Such as having to wake up early for school.
Biological clocks may not be in line with the demands of their environment.
ADULTHOOD
18-30 years
30-75 years
Young: 7.75 hours
Middle: 7-8 hours
20% REM 80% NREM
Both are fairly constant.
20% REM 80% REM
Low levels of sleep occur due to health problems, sleeping disorders and the reduced amount of cognitive and physical growth.
OLD AGE 65+ years
6 hours
20% REM 80% NREM
Low levels of sleep occur due to health problems, sleeping disorders and the reduced amount of cognitive and physical growth.
Inadequate amounts of sleep due to:
- poor sleep habits.
- hormonal changes –> less/more dopamine.
- exposure to blue light –> less dopamine.
- busy schedules
The proportion of NREM AND REM sleep…
REM decreases over time.
What is sleep deprivation?
Insufficient sleep a person needs for their age. Poor quality/quantity.
Total sleep deprivation: No sleep within a 24-hour period.
Partial sleep deprivation: Sleeps for some duration within 24 hours but sleep duration is short or poor quality of sleep.
Effects of sleep deprivation.
Affective: change in mood or emotions. eg. snapping at others.
Behavioural: change in observable actions and the way we function. eg. physical changes.
Cognitive: changes in thinking processes. eg. lapses in attention.
Poor quality of sleep
- Sleepwalking
- Sleep apnoea (trouble breathing when sleeping)
- Medication changing sleep patterns.
Caused by:
- Lifestyle factors.
- Sleep disorders.
- Pain.
How does sleep deprivation impact you?
- Lowered awareness (Cognitive)
- Affected judgement (Cognitive)
- Enhanced emotions (Affective)
- Clumsy (Behavioural)
- Reaction times (Cognitive).
Sleep deprivation compared to B.A.C %.
17 hours sleep deprived = effects of 0.05% BAC.
24 hours (totally sleep deprived) = 0.1% BAC.
Sleep disorders
disturbances to typical sleeping and waking patterns.
Circadian rhythm sleep disorders.
Sleep disorders interfere with the typical regulation of the circadian rhythm of sleep, leading to a change in the sleep-wake cycle.
-Delayed Sleep phase syndrome.
- Advanced sleep phase disorder.
- Shiftwork.
Delayed sleep phase syndrome.
Circadian rhythm is delayed 2-3 hours or more, resulting in going to sleep later and waking up later.
Causes:
- Lifestyle factors.
- Poor sleep patterns.
- Shift-work.
- Jetlag.
- Adolescence.
In adolescents:
Internal Biological, Internal psychological and External
INTERNAL BIO: Puberty; hormonally induced shift of the body clock with melatonin not being released 1-2hrs later than in childhood.
INTERNAL PSYCH: Rumination; repeatedly thinking and worrying about things.
EXTERNAL: Social factors. eg. work.
Adolescent sleep-wake shift.
Delayed
Both sleep time and wake time are delayed (naturally occurring release). Go to be late - late melatonin release.
Advanced sleep phase disorder.
Extreme tiredness in the evening. Sleep and waking occur earlier than usual.
Caused by:
- Lifestyle factors.
- Genetics
- Shift work.
- Jetlag.
- Oldage –> reduction in melatonin, decreased exposure to light in the early afternoon.
Shift-work.
Makes it more likely to develop a disorder.
The disorder would be not going to sleep when your body tells you to.
Shift-work employment outside of a normal work day. Working overnight.
People are forced to stay awake when their circadian rhythm indicates that they should be sleeping.
Shift-work impacts.
- Sleepiness at work (safety concerns).
- Partial sleep deprivation.
- Insomnia.
- Mood swings.
- 10 days to recover/adjust after night shifts.
Shift-work interverntion.
- Consistent hours.
- Bright light workplace conditions.
- Low light conditions after leaving shift and at home.
Bright light therapy.
Treatment for circadian rhythm disorders.
- Regular exposure to an intense but safe amount of light at regular patterns to shift an individual’s sleep-wake cycle to a desired schedule.
- Lightbox. Light is transmitted to SCN, therefore melatonin decreases and cortisol levels increase.
Use:
Advanced: the afternoon.
Delayed: the morning.
Consists of:
- exposed to 10,000 LUX.
Sleep Hygiene
The practices and habits that promote an individual’s sleep patterns.
How to improve sleep hygiene
- Establish regular sleep onset and wake schedules.
- Minisime exposure to light before bed and maximise exposure to light in the morning.
- Associate the bed and bedroom with sleep.
- Avoid stimulating activities before bed such as exercise.
- Avoid napping.
- Improve sleep environment.
- Bedtime routine.
Zeitgebers
Environmental time cues provide signals to the brain (SCN) to regulate the body’s circadian.
They include:
- Light.
- Eating/drinking.
- Exercise routines.
- Temperature.
Daylight - Zeitgebers
Exposure to the sunlight ensures we are awake during the day and asleep at night.
Blue light - Zeitgebers
Provides light exposure before bed, delaying the release of melatonin.
Temperature - Zeitgebers
External air temp
When the sun drops so does the temperature. 16% ideal.
Body core temp.
24-hour circadian rhythm, falling during the night and rising during the early morning.
When melatonin is released 2 hours before sleep your body’s temperature starts to drop and continues to fall during the night, reaching a low point in the early morning, then gradually increasing.
Eating + Drinking Patterns - Zeitgebers
- Sleep-wake is influenced by what and when you eat.
- Circadian rhythm prepares the body to be efficient at digesting food during the day when we are more active.
- Maintain a relatively stable eating + drinking pattern.
- Eat food during the day and avoid eating food 3-4 hours before bed.
- Avoid caffeine late afternoon.
Wellbeing
The individual is mentally, physically, socially healthy and secure.
Mental Wellbeing
Individuals’ psychological state and their ability to think, process information and regulate emotions.
Ways of considering mental wellbeing
- Levels of functioning.
- Resilience.
- Social Wellbeing.
- Emotional wellbeing.
Levels of functioning.
The degree to which individuals can complete day-to-day tasks independently and effectively.
High levels of functioning.
- Carry out basic tasks.
- Productive.
- Set goals.
- Independent.
- Adapt to change.
Low levels of functioning.
- Struggle to carry out daily tasks.
- Feelings lethargic; unproductive.
- Lack of direction.
- Unable to cope with change.
Resilience.
Ability to cope and manage change/uncertainty.
Respond effectively to stressors, overcome them and adapt to them.
High levels of resilience
- Seek solutions to problems.
- Appropriate coping strategies.
- Flexible in changing environments.
- Optimistic + hope.
Low levels of resilience
- Enduring feelings of being overwhelmed by problems.
- Unhealthy coping strategies.
- Unable to adapt to change.
- Lack of optimism + hope.
Social well-being.
Form and maintain meaningful bonds with others and adapt to social situations.
High levels of social well-being.
- Strong support network.
- Form + maintain meaningful relationships.
- Effectively communicate with others.
Low levels of social well-being.
- Isolated/lack of support.
- Difficulty forming relationships.
- Struggle to communicate effectively.
Emotional well-being.
Appropriately control and express emotions in an adaptive way, and understand the emotions of others.
High levels of emotional well-being.
- Aware of own and other’s emotional state.
- Experience a wide range of emotions.
- Appropriately express emotions.
Low levels of emotional health and well-being.
- Unable to understand emotions.
- Unable to experience certain emotions.
- Inappropriately express emotions.
Social-Emotional wellbeing framework (SEWB)
Includes all elements of being and well-being for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.
- Multidimensional (different components).
- Holistic (Considers the whole person).
-conceptions of health as holistic, interdependent, and interconnected domains of social, emotional and cultural wellbeing of the whole community.
The SEWB dimensions.
- Connection to body.
- Connection to mind and emotions.
- Connection to family and kinship.
- Connection to community.
- Connection to culture.
- Connection to country.
- Connection to spirituality and ancestors.
Connection to the body.
Connecting to the physical body and health to participate fully in all aspects of life.
eg. Good nutrition.
Connection to family and kinship.
Connection to immediate and wider family group/community.
eg. Quality time.
Connection to community.
Connection to wider social systems; support and connect.
eg. Community services.
Connection to culture.
Identity, values and traditions that connect the past, present and future. –> behaviour and beliefs.
eg. Speak the local language.
Connection to country.
Traditional lands of a particular language or culture; spiritually and emotionally (geographic).
eg. Only taking what one needs from the land
Connection to spirituality and ancestors.
Connecting all things, beliefs and behaviours to guide knowledge.
Ancestors are connected with the creation of spirits and the country. (guide and protect families).
The determinants (SEWB)
- Social.
- Historical.
- Political.
Social determinants.
Circumstances people grow, live and work, and the systems put in place to deal with illness.
eg. Unemployment.
Historical determinants.
The ongoing influence of events, policies and trauma on groups of people.
eg. Colonisation.
Political determinants.
Shape the process of distributing resources and power to individuals and communities and create or reinforce social + health inequalities.
eg. Unresolved issues of land.
Mental well-being as a continuum
An individual’s psychological state and the ability to think, process information and regulate emotions.
- Tracks fluctuating mental well-being.
- It is constantly changing
- Not-fixed.
- Can shift.
High levels of mental health (continuum)
- Function Independently.
- Cope with everyday demands
- Excessive level of distress and dysfunction.
- Ability to cope with stress, sadness and anger.
Medium levels of mental health (continuum)
—> less severe and more temporary.
- Not functioning at an optimal level.
- Moderate impact on mental wellbeing.
- Amplified emotions and high levels of stress.
- Difficulty concentrating.
- Irrational thought patterns.
Low levels of mental health (continuum)
- High levels of distress.
- Unable to independently complete tasks and demands of environments.
- Impacted for an extended period of time.
- May be diagnosed; treated through psychotherapy or medication.
Factors influencing mental health.
Internal and External.
Internal factors. MH
Factors that arise from within the individual.
Biological. eg. stress response, thought patterns and genetic predisposition.
External factors. MH
Factors that arise from outside of an individual (the environment).
Social. eg. Loss of relationships, level of education.
Stress
Psychological and physiological experience that occurs when an individual encounters something of significance that demands their attention/efforts to cope.
- Response to stressors.
- Natural response; sympathetic.
Anxiety
The psychological and physiological response involves feelings of worry and apprehension about a perceived threat.
- Undefined stressor.
- Apprehension.
- Futuristic thinking/perceived threat.
Phobia
Diagnosable anxiety disorder that is categorised by excessive and disproportionate fear when encountering or anticipating the encounter of a particular stimulus.
- Specific trigger/stimulus (defined).
- Irrational.
- Intense fear.
Biopsychosocial
Biological.
Psychological.
Social.
Biological - Protective
- Adequate diet.
- Adequate hydration.
- Adequate sleep.
Adequate diet - Biological.
Unprocessed foods high in nutrients reduce the risk of mental health disorders.
Food is a zeitgeber–>Sleep promotion.
Gut-brain axis:
- Healthy microbiota supported by a high diversity of nutrients.
- Reduces stress.
- Serotonin neurochemicals are more balanced.
Nutrients are used to produce neurochemicals.
Improves physical health.
Adequate hydration. - Biological.
60% of the body is made of water, particularly in the blood that transports nutrients and oxygen.
- Water is required to make and transport neurochemicals.
Adequate sleep - Biological.
Good quality of sleep.
- NREM sleep is required to replenish muscles and tissues.
- REM sleep is required to replenish the mind.
Insufficient sleep can reduce concentration, affecting mood and increasing risk-taking behaviour.
Psychological - Protective.
- Cognitive behavioural strategies.
- Meditation.
Cognitive behavioural strategies - Psychological -
Identification and challenge of negative thoughts lead to more positive behaviours and vice versa.
Behaviour –> Thoughts –> Feelings
<———————————————-
LTP becomes more strengthened.
Attention - Psychological
Focused on thoughts/feelings/sensations in the present moment.
Acceptance - Psychological
Experiencing the above without judgment.
Meditation.
Reduce activity of the amygdala(fear and emotion) and increase activity in the prefrontal cortex (decision making).
Social - Protective.
- Support
Support - Social
Authentic:
- Comfortable relationships.
- Honest conversation and feedback to reduce stress.
- Uses legitimate and effective advice
Energising:
- Focus on creating a positive environment.
Biopsychosocial approach to phobia.
Biological - physical factors in the body leading to the development of aphobia.
Psychological - thoughts + mental processes leading to phobia development.
Social - Development of phobia through interaction with others.
Biological (Phobia)
- GABA dysfunction.
- Long-Term Potentiaton.
GABA dysfunction - Biological.
Predisposing.
Insufficient neural transmission of GABA (inhibitory), to be activated more quickly, due to fear response, leading to phobia development.
It is Biological and predisposing.
GABA initially decreases arousal, but in GABA dysfunction arousal is heightened as it is absent.
Over activation of neural pathways, causing anxiety and a stress response.
Long-Term Potentiation - Biological.
Predisposing.
- The strengthening of neural synapses.
- A more readily trigger activation of neural signals; fear.
In phobia; it improves the thought pathway that links the stimulus with fear.
Psychological (Phobia)
- Classical Conditioning.
- Operant Conditioning.
- Cognitive Biases (Memory bias and catastrophic thinking).
Classical Conditioning - Psychological.
Precipitation.
Phobias can be learned through classical conditioning, with repeated association with phobia stimulus to produce a fear response.
eg.
NS (Magpie) –> no response.
UCS(Swooping) –> UCR(fear).
NS(magpie) is repeatedly associated with UCS(Swooping) –> UCR(fear).
CS(Magpie) –> CR(Fear).
Operant conditioning - Psychological.
Perpetuation.
Maintaining fear by avoidance behaviours –> negative reinforcement (something unpleasant is removed).
Over time the reinforcement strengthens/maintains the phobic response, making it more likely to be repeated.
Cognitive Bias - Psychological.
Think/process information in a certain way, causing errors in judgements and thoughts. This contributes to phobias because you deem it as harmful, dangerous or scary.
2 types:
Memory
Catastrophic
Memory Bias - Psychological.
- Inaccurate/exaggerated memory.
- Traumatic events; impacting present cognitions about related stimuli.
- Past thinking.
- Worse than what it was in some way.
Catastrophic Thinking - Psychological.
- Futuristic thinking.
- Negative thinking about what might happen.
Social (Phobia).
- Specific environmental triggers.
- Stigma around seeking treatment.
Specific environmental triggers - Social.
Some stimuli/experiences in a person’s environment that promote an extreme stress response:
- Direct confrontation –> exposure.
- Observing another person –> someone else is scared.
- Learning about a traumatic stimulus or event.
The stigma around seeking treatment - Social.
- Sense of shame about getting professional help for phobia.
- Way we perceive expectations.
Interventions for phobia - Biological.
- Benzodiazepines.
- Relaxation treatment.
Benzodiazepines - Biological.
GABA agonists (same molecular shape).
Binds to a receptor to enhance the effect of existing GABA molecules.
Enables GABA through the fluid in the synaptic gap.
Thereby allowing GABA to have its inhibitory effects. By making the neuron less likely to fire, the over-excitation of neurons that causes anxiety is reduced, providing a temporary relief of the stress response
Relaxation techniques - Biological.
Engages parasympathetic nervous system to counter stress response.
Breathing retaining:
- Control breathing; slow down.
Cause:
- Hyperventilation when fearful. (decreases CO2).
- Imbalance in CO2/O2 in blood, therefore causing a feeling of anxiety (heightened arousal).
Solution:
- Breathing sleepy and slowly.
- Restarting CO2/O2 balance.
- Decreases arousal.
interventions for phobia - Psychological.
- Cognitive behavioural therapy.
- Systematic desensitisation.
Cognitive behavioural therapy - Psychological.
- Replace unhealthy thoughts with healthier ones.
- Notice and challenge thoughts and behaviours.
Thoughts:
- Memory Bias.
- Catastrophic Bias.
- Embarrassment –> stigma.
- Extreme fear.
Behaviours:
- Avoidance behaviours.
- Seek help.
Systematic Desensitisation.
Deliberate exposure over time.
The process:
1. Learn relaxation techniques (such as breathing retraining)
2. Development of a fear hierarchy, ranking anxiety-inducing experiences related to the patient’s phobia from easiest to confront, to most difficult to confront
3. A gradual step-by-step exposure to each item on the hierarchy, beginning with the least anxiety-inducing stimulus, paired with practice of the learned relaxation techniques
4. Continuation of this systematic exposure until the most fear-inducing stimulus can be faced without producing the phobic response.
Interventions for phobia - Social.
- Psychoeducation for families and supporters.
Psychoeducation for families and supporters. - social
Teachers families and supporters about ways to manage and deal with a person’s phobia. As well as overall knowledge about the nature of the phobia/mental health disorder.
2 teachings:
- Challenging unrealistic or anxious thoughts.
- Not encouraging avoidant behaviours.
Risk factors
- Predisposing.
- Precipitating.
- Perpetuating.
Predisposing
Pre-existing increases the chance of a mental health disorder.
- GABA dysfunction.
Precipitating
Trigger.
- Classical Conditioning, LTP, Specific environmental triggers.
Perpetuating
Maintains the problem/illness.
- Operant, Stigma and Cogntive Bias.
Cultural determinants
- Cultural Continuity.
- Self-determination.
Cultural Continuity.
- Carry on historical traditions of cultures.
- Can be disrupted or destroyed if cultural practices are not allowed to continue.
Self-determination.
- Right of people to shape their own lives.
Risk factors in depth
Predisposing:
- Gaba dysfunction.
Precipitating
- Classical conditioning.
- LTP.
- Specific environmental triggers.
Perpetuating
- Stigma.
- Operant conditioning.
- Cognitive biases.
