PSYCHOLOGY 3/4 Flashcards
What are the 3 main roles of the Nervous System?
- Reception.
- Process.
- Respond.
Reception
Receives sensory stimuli. Internal and external. eg heart rate.
Process
Making sense or interpretation.
Respond
Physical action. eg using skeletal muscle - internal muscle.
eg. sweat.
Central Nervous System.
- Brain
- Spinal cord ( Spinal Reflex )
Peripheral Nervous System.
Contains all of the neurons/nerves outside of the CNS. Carries information to the spinal cord, and then from the spinal cord to connect the brain with voluntary muscles, sensory receptors, and involuntary muscles.
Somatic.
Voluntary skeletal muscles.
Sensory and Motor neurons.
Sensory
Afferent, towards the CNS.
Motor
Efferent, away CNS.
Autonomic
Involuntry.
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
Sympathetic
Prepares the body for action, responding to a threat.
Flight or Fight.
eg. Dilated pupils, increased heart rate, bladder relaxes, digestion stops.
Parasympathetic
Homeostasis. A level of calm.
eg. Heart rate decreases, temperature decreases.
Fight or Flight
Response for survival when under threat.
Interneurons
Afferent and Efferent, in the CNS.
Effector
Muscle - whatever is having the effect.
Receptor
Detects the stimulus.
Spinal Reflex.
Involuntary, unconscious. Somatic.
Response to certain potentially damaging stimuli without the involvement of the brain. It is automatically reflected back from the spinal cord.
Dendrites
Receive messages from other cells - receptors, other neurons.
Receive information using receptor sites.
The information exits in the form of neurotransmitters which are chemicals.
Cell body (soma)
Converts the chemical neurotransmitter message to an electrical message known as an action potential.
Axon
Carries the action potential (electrical message).
Axon terminal
Receives electrical messages and releases stored neurotransmitter chemicals.
Types of neurochemicals
Neurotransmitters
Neuromodulators
Neurotransmitters
- used at a single synapse.
- ONE post-synaptic neuron responds.
Glutamate + GABA.
Neuromodulator
- at any multiple synapses.
- MANY post-synaptic neurons respond.
Dopamine + Serotonin.
Glutamate
Memory - Neurotransmitter (Excitatory)
Dopamine
Pleasure - Neuromodulator (Excitatory)
Serotonin
Mood - Neuromodulator (Inhibitory).
GABA
Calming - Neurotransmitter (Inhibitory)
Excitatory
Increased chance of action potential/release electrical impulse/fire.
Inhibitory
Decreased chance of action potential/release electrical impulse/fire.
Threshold
Excitatory: Once over the threshold, the post-synaptic neuron has reached action potential.
Inhibitory: Decreases until resting.
Neurotransmitters’ effects on postsynaptic neuron….
Excitatory & Inhibitory.
Neuromodulators affect neurotransmitters in 2 ways…
- Changes responsiveness of receptor sites, enhancing the excitatory or inhibitory effects of a transmitter.
- Changes the release pattern of a neurotransmitter from the pre-synaptic neuron.
Neural plasticity
Changes to the neuron.
-Learning.
-Brain Damage.
-Less frequent use.
Sprouting
Neurons develop new branches on dendrites or axons. (due to damage)
- Dendrites become bushier when used more frequently.
- Axon terminal appendages increase in number.
Rerouting
-New connections between neurons.
-Injury and damage response.
Pruning.
Undamaged neurons form new connections with one another.
Reduction in connections when stimulation of a synapse is repeatedly weakened over time.
Long-term potentiation. LTP
Strengthening of synapses, more neurotransmitters, and receptor sites increase OVER TIME.
Communication is strengthened because the neuron can reach the threshold more quickly.
More stimulation because a higher number of neurotransmitters and receptors are binding.
Long-term depression. LTD
Repeated, WEAKENED stimulation signals to the pre-synaptic neuron, to reduce the number of neurotransmitters and to the post-synaptic neuron to reduce the number of receptor sites OVER TIME.
Stress
An individual experiences in response to an event.
A psychobiological process.
Subjective.
Stress - Biological.
Involuntary - Fight or Flight.
Stress - Psychological.
Emotional + Cognitive.
2 different types of Stressors
Internal + External.
Internal Stressor
- Body (within)
eg. a memory.
External Stressor
- Outside of body.
eg. assignment.
Acute
Short term.
Occurs quickly
Fight/Flight - Sympathetic.
Freeze - Parasympathetic.
Adrenaline.
Chronic
Long term.
Builds up over time.
Ongoing, cumulative.
Cortisol - a stress hormone.
Eustress
a POSITIVE perception of a stressor.
Distress
a NEGATIVE perception of stress.
Role of Cortisol
- Released in Chronic Stress + FFF.
- Maintains arousal allowing the body to deal with stress for a longer period of time.
- Turns off unnecessary body systems at the time.
- Excessive Cortisol over a prolonged period of time inhibits the immune system.
Seyles General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)
Resistance to stress.
1. Alarm Reaction Stage.
2. Resistance Stage.
3. Exhaustion Stage.
Alarm Reaction Stage.
Consists of:
Shock and Countershock.
Shock (Alarm)
Parasympathetic - Freeze Response.
Shock (Alarm) symptoms/effects.
- Heart rate decreases.
- Temperature drops.
- Breathing rate decreases.
Preparing for Fight/Flight.
Countershock (Alarm)
Sympathetic - Fight/Flight.
Adrenaline and Noradrenaline Hormones.
Countershock (Alarm) symptoms/effects.
Heart rate increases.
Breathing rate increases.
Temperature rises.
Acute response to deal with stressors.
Resistance Stage.
Release of cortisol, energies the body to resist stressors.
- As resistance continues cortisol suppresses the immune system.
Resistance Stage symptoms and effects.
- More energy; if stress is chronic; ongoing, cumulative and/or severe.
- As resistance continues, frequent infections can occur (eg. Colds).
Exhaustion stage.
Bodies resources are depleted.
Exhaustion stage symptoms/effects.
- Severe fatigue
- Diabetes, type II –> lifestyle (increased chance).
- Severe weight loss/gain.
GAS Limitations.
- Research not conducted on humans.
- Does not account for individual differences and psychological factors.
GAS Strengths.
- Measures a predictable pattern that can be measured in individuals.
- If stress is not prolonged, stages are still experienced. Therefore tracks biological patterns in different types of stress.
- Greater the intensity of the stressor the greater the physiological response.
Lazarus + Folkman’s transactional model of stress and coping.
Stressor —-> Benign/Irrelevant
|
v
Stressful.
- Primary Appraisal -> unconscious evaluation.
Threat ( Future ).
Harm/Loss (Past)
Challenge ( Eustress ) -> benefit.
Secondary Appraisal -> Conscious decision.
“Are there sufficient recourses to cope?”
YES –> Reappraised as NOT stressful.
NO –> Distress is experienced.
Strategies to cope with stress.
Approach + Avoidant
Approach Strategy.
A strategy that reduces/eliminates stress. It is a DIRECT strategy.
Avoidant Strategy.
Reduces the stress response, but the stressor is not affected.
An appropriate strategy if no way to directly combat the stressor.
It’s Maladaptive meaning it makes the stressor worse.
approach + avoidant example.
You have a psychology SAC, on Friday that you want to pass.
Approach: Revise in Advance.
Avoidant: Go out with friends to distract yourself. Procrastination.
Context-specific effectiveness
Selection of a coping strategy that is appropriate for the stressor. THE RIGHT ONE TO DEAL WITH THE STRESSOR.
Coping Flexibility.
Recognising that a coping strategy isn’t working, and changing the coping strategy so it does.
NOT THE RIGHT ONE ANYMORE - HAVING TO CHANGE.
Gut-Brain axis.
Gut to the brain.
Brain to the gut.
Enteric Nervous System
Nerve pathways within the GI (gastrointestinal) track link to the brain.
Gut microbiota
all of the microorganisms that live in the gut
Gut microbiome
Microbiota. collective term for a population of microbiota in a defined environment (includes the genes of microbes)
Gut-Brain Axis (GBA)
the bidirectional connection between the gut and the brain through the enteric and central nervous systems
Vagus nerve
the longest cranial nerve that connects the gut and the brain, enabling them to communicate
Good for your gut health. :)
Fermented food.
—> Miso Soup.
—> Kimchi.
Microbiota is good gut bacteria.
Bad for your gut health. :(
- Antibiotics.
- Poor food choices.
—> High-fat diets.
—> Sugar (high).
Good microbiota health controls some stress hormone levels.
Communicates with the brain via. the vagus nerve to control neurotransmitter release in the brain.
HPA axis
hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis
difference and similarity between neurotransmitters and neuromodulators.
Difference: Neurotransmitters have an effect on one or two synapses, whilst neuromodulators have an effect on multiple synapses.
Similarity: Both must bind to a specific receptor site to have an effect.
What are the behaviourist approaches to learning?
Classical Conditioning and Operant conditioning.
What is classical conditioning?
A simple form of learning; occurs through the repeated association of 2 different stimuli, producing a naturally occurring response.
The learner is PASSIVE: involuntary responses.
eg. Salivation + Blinking.
Behaviourism.
The psychological approach proposes that learning occurs by interacting with the external environment.
Neutral stimulus
Produces no significant response prior to conditioning; same as Conditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus.
Produces an unconscious response, a naturally made response.
Unconditioned response.
Naturally occurring behaviour in response to stimuli; same as a conditioned response.
Conditioned stimulus.
Produces a conditioned response after repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus; same as the neutral stimulus.
Conditioned response.
The response that occurs involuntarily after the conditioned stimulus is presented; is the same as an unconditioned response.
3 phases of learning - Classical Conditioning.
- Before conditioning.
- During conditioning.
- After conditioning.
Before conditioning
Neutral stimulus –> produces no relevant response.
The unconditioned stimulus causes the Unconditioned response.
eg.
(NS)Bell –> no relevant response.
(UCS) Food –> (UCR)Salivation.
During conditioning
The neutral stimulus is immediately followed by the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly associated with the unconditioned response.
The neutral stimulus was repeatedly associated with the unconditioned stimulus producing the unconditioned response.
eg.
(NS) Bell immediately followed by (UCS)Food —> (UCR)Salivation.
After conditioning.
Conditioned stimulus produces the conditioned response.
eg.
(CS) Bell –> (CR) Salivation.
Operant Conditioning.
- Learning; Behaviour becomes controlled by consequences.
- Voluntary Behaviour –> decides the behaviour.
- Active; The learner is involved in the learning.
Operant 3-phase process.
Antecedent
Behaviour
Consequence
Antecedent
Situation/environment that allows the learner to decide on the behaviour.
Stimulus conditions that exist in the environment prior to the response.
Behaviour.
The action.
Response; voluntary behaviour.
Consequence
Result of your actions; applied to the response.
Reinforcement and Punishment.
Reinforcement
Any stimulus that strengthens or increases a response.
Makes the repetition of behaviour more likely.
More likely to repeat behaviour.
2 types:
Positive.
Negative.
Positive Reinforcement.
Applied, given(desired). Reward that strengthens a response
eg. Lollies, praise.
Negative Reinforcement.
Taking away (unpleasant). Reduction or prevention of an unpleasant stimulus.
eg. Removing pain, less homework.
Punishment.
Less likely to repeat the behaviour.
Makes repetition of behaviour less likely.
2 types:
Positive
Response cost (negative).
Positive Punishment.
Apply (unpleasant).
Something unpleasant is applied.
eg. Pain, labour (extra work).
Response cost (Negative punishment).
Take away (desired)
Something desired is removed.
eg. jail time, loss of freedom.
Is punishment always effective?
Depends on the time and consistency.
Must fit the crime; not too harsh or too soft.
The limitation is that it doesn’t teach what’s right, only what’s wrong.
Classical VS Operant.
Operant; Conscious –> voluntary/choice.
Classical; Unconscious.
Observational learning (social cognitive approaches to learning)
Steps of learning; watching someone do something and then doing the same.
Observing the behaviour of a model, and the consequence of those behaviours, in order to guide future behaviours.
Learning by watching someone’s behaviour.
Can be immediate or latent. (learning now, behaviour shown later)
Active.
Modelled behaviour.
Steps of Observational Learning.
Attention.
Retention.
Reproduction.
Motivation.
Reinforcement.
Attention.
Actively watching the behaviour of the model and the consequences of said behaviour (focus).
Retention.
Making a mental representation of the behaviour.
Reproduction.
The learner needs to have the capability to repeat the behaviour.
Motivation.
Desire to reproduce that behaviour; doing it.
Influenced by the model.
Reinforcement (Observational)
Learner (direct) –> watcher.
Model (indirect) –> Vicarious reinforcement; reward + consequence.
Aboriginal connection to country.
Ongoing life responsibilities, to the land where a person is born or where their ancestors were born.
eg. Land, Seasons, Waterways, Culture.
Aboriginal ways of knowing.
Learning is relational and interconnected, taking place in a community where family and kin learn from each other.
Connections between concepts are highlighted and understood; holistic.
Aboriginal systems of knowledge.
Knowledge and skills are based on interconnected social, physical and spiritual understandings. Inform survival and contribute to a strong sense of identity.
Developed by communities working together and sharing traditional expertise/knowledge.
Informed by culture; who can learn what and where.
Aboriginal Multimodal System of Learning
Approaches to learning are multimodal by nature; use a variety of methods.
- Story sharing.
- Learning maps.
- Artwork.
- Community links.
- Non-verbal; dance.
- Pattern of nature; seasons.
Aboriginal Learning Embedded in Relationships.
Deeply embedded in relationships
- Between concepts.
- Learner and Teacher.
- Individuals and families.
Learning begins with the relationship between the learner and the teacher. and understanding connections between people.
Family-based learning, teaching themselves.
Aboriginal KinShip
Connections to country.
Complex and Diverse.
Individual relationships and responsibilities to country and people.
Individual and group rights.
Scaffolding knowledge.
Disrupted Kinship = Disrupted Knowledge.
Aboriginal; Patterned(created) on country.
- Country is everything; its family, life and connection.
- Contains complex ideas; Law, place, custom, identity, and family.
Acknowledging country.
Shows respect towards the Traditional owners, and acknowledges Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ownership and custodianship of the land, ancestors and traditions.
Welcome to the country.
Goes back to when visitors had to wait to be welcomed into a camp/ceremony.
being welcomed to the country means you are talking to spiritual ancestors; saying they can come through.
Trust in doing no harm.
Models of memory
Storage + retrieval of information required through learning.
Internal record/representation of some prior event or experience.
Encoding
Converting information to a storeable form.
Storage.
Retaining information in memory over time.