Psychology Flashcards
The science of behavior and mental processes
Psychology
The study of the relationships between features of physical stimuli, such as their intensity, and the sensations we experience in response to them
Psychophysics
Inward focusing on mental experiences, such as sensations or feelings
Introspection
The school of psychology that attempts to understand the structure of the mind by breaking it down into its component parts
Structuralism
The school of psychology that focuses on the adaptive functions of behavior
Functionalism
The school of psychology that holds that psychology should limit it self to the study of overt, observable behavior
Behaviorism
The school of psychology that holds that the brain structures or perceptions of the world in terms of meaningful patterns or wholes
Gestalt psychology
A German word meaning unitary form or pattern
Gestalt
In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that lies beyond conscious awareness and that contains primitive drives and instinct
Unconscious
The view that behavior is influenced by the struggle between unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses and opposing forces that try to keep this threatening material out of consciousness
Psychodynamic perspective
Frauds method of psychotherapy, which focuses on uncovering and working through unconscious conflicts believed to be at root or psychological problems
Psychoanalysis
In approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior
Behavioral perspective
A contemporary learning based model that emphasizes the roles of cognitive and environmental factors in determining behavior
Behavior therapy
The school of psychology that believes that free will and conscious choice are essential aspects of the human experience
Humanistic psychology
In approach to study psychology that focuses on the relationships between biological processes and behavior
Physiological perspective
A branch of psychology that focuses on the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior
Cognitive perspective
An approach to the study of psychology that emphasizes the role of social and cultural influences on behavior,
Sociocultural perspective
Contemporary movement within psychology that emphasizes the study of human virtues and assets, rather than weaknesses and deficits
Positive psychology
Research focused on acquiring knowledge, even if such knowledge has no direct practical application
Basic research
Research that attempts to find solutions to specific problems
Applied research
Psychologists who apply experimental methods to the study of behavior and mental processes
Experimental psychologist
Psychologist who studies behavior, similarities, and differences among animal species
Comparative psychologists
Psychologists who focus on the biological underpinnings of behavior
Physiological psychologist
Psychologists who use psychological techniques to evaluate and treat individuals with mental or psychological disorders
Clinical psychologist
Medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental or psychological disorders
Psychiatrist
Psychologist who help people clarify their goals and make life decisions or finding ways of overcoming problems in various areas of their lives
Counseling psychologist
Psychologists who evaluate and assist children with learning problems, or other special needs
School psychologists
Psychologists who study issues relating to the measurement of intelligence and the processes involved in educational or academic achievement
Educational psychologist
Psychologists to focus on processes involving physical, cognitive, social, and personality development
Developmental psychologists
Psychologist who studies the psychological characteristics and behaviors that distinguishes as individuals and lead us to act consistently over time
Personality psychologists
Psychologists who study group or social influences on behavior and attitudes
Social psychologist
Psychologist who study relationships between physical environment and behavior
Environmental psychologists
Psychologist who studies people’s behavior at work
Industrial/organizational psychologist
Psychologists who focus on the relationship between psychological factors and physical health
Health psychologist
Psychologist who study why people purchase a particular product and brands
Consumer psychologist
Psychologists who study relationships between the brain and behavior
Neuropsychologists
Psychologists to focus on physiological processes involved in aging
Geropsychologists
Psychologists involved in the application of psychology in the legal system
Forensic psychologist
Psychologists who applied psychology to understand and improving athletic performance
Sport psychologists
A method of developing knowledge based on evaluating evidence, gathered from experiments and careful observation
Empirical approach
Conclusions drawn from observations
Inferences
A formulation that accounts for relationships among observed events or that explains experimental findings
Theory
Factors or measures that vary within an experiment or among individuals
Variables
A method of inquiry involving careful observation, and use of experimental methods
Scientific method
A precise prediction about the outcome of an experiment
Hypothesis
A branch of mathematics involving the tabulation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data
Statistics
A term representing that he finding is unlikely to be due to a chance of random fluctuations
Statistical significance
The attempt to duplicate findings
Replication
An in-depth study of one or more individuals
Case study method
A research methods that uses structured interviews or questionnaires to gather information about groups of people
Survey method
An interview in which a set of specific questions asked in a particular order
Structured interview
A written set of questions, or statements, to which people reply by marking their responses on the answer form
Questionnaire
All the individuals are organisms that constitute a particular groups
Population
A method of sampling in which each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected
Random sampling
Subset of a population
Samples
The tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable manner
Social desirability bias
The type of bias that arises when people who volunteered to participate in a survey or research study have characteristics that make them on representative of the population, from which they were drawn
Volunteer bias
A method of research based on careful observation of behavior in nature settings
Naturalistic observation method
A research method that examines relationships between variables, as expressed in form of a statistical measurement called a correlation coefficient
Correlational method
A statistical measure of association between variables that can vary from -1.00 to +1.00
Correlational coefficient
A method of scientific investigation involving the manipulation of independent variables and observation of measurement of their effects on dependent variables under controlled conditions
Experimental method
Factors that are manipulated in an experiment
Independent variables
The effects or outcomes of an experiment that are believed to be dependent on the levels or values of the independent variable or variables
Dependent variables
Groups of participants in a research experiment, who do not receive the experimental treatment or intervention
Control groups
A method of assigning research participants at random to experimental or control groups
Random assignment
An inert substance or experimental condition that resembles the active treatment
Placebo
Positive outcomes of an experiment resulting from positive expectations of participants, rather than from the experimental treatment
Placebo effects
In drug research, studies in which participants are kept uninformed about whether they are receiving the experimental drug or a placebo
Single blind studies
Injured research, studies in which both participants and experimenters are kept uninformed about which participants are receiving the active drug and which are receiving the placebo
Double blind studies
Committees that evaluate whether proposed studies meet ethical guidelines
Ethics review committee’s
Agreement to participate in a study, following disclosure of information about the purposes and nature of the study, and its potential risks and benefits
Informed consent
The adoption of a skeptical, questioning attitude and careful scrutiny of claims or arguments
Critical thinking
Irregularities in _________________ functioning are implicated in many psychological disorders, including eating disorders, depression, and schizophrenia
Neurotransmitter
Chemicals released in the nervous system that influence the sensitivity of the receiving neuron to neuron transmitters
Neuromodulators
A severe and chronic psychological disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking, perception, emotions, and behavior
Schizophrenia
Perceptions experienced in the absence of corresponding external stimuli
Hallucinations
Fixed but patently false beliefs, such as believing that one is being hounded by demons
Delusions
A progressive brain disease involving destruction of dopamine producing brain cells and characterized by muscle tremors, shakiness, rigidity, difficulty in walking and controlling fine body movements
Parkinson’s disease
A drug that activates the central nervous system, such as caffeine
Stimulant
A class of synthetically, derived stimulant drugs, such as methamphetamine
Amphetamines
Drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels or activity of neural transmitters
Anti-depressants
Natural chemicals released in the brain that have pain killing and pleasure inducing affects
Endorphins
A reflex controlled at the level of the spinal cord that may involve has a few as to neurons
Spinal reflex
The part of the nervous system that connects the spinal cord and brain with the sensory organs, muscles, and glands
Peripheral nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system, that transmits information between the central nervous system and the sensory organs and muscles ; also controls voluntary movement
Somatic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that automatically regulates involuntary bodily processes, such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion
Autonomic nervous system
The branch of the autonomic nervous system that accelerates bodily processes and releases the stores of energy needed to meet increased physical demands
Sympathetic nervous system
The branch of the autonomic nervous system, that regulates, bodily processes, such as digestion, that replenishes stores of energy
Parasympathetic nervous system
Neurons that fire both when an action is performed and when the same action is merely observed
Mirror neurons
Areas of the cerebral cortex that piece together sensory information to form meaningful perceptions of the world and perform higher mental functions
Association areas
In studies of brain functioning, the intentional destruction of brain tissue in order to observe the effects on behavior
Lesioning
Specialization of the right and left cerebral hemispheres for particular functions
Lateralization
An area of the left frontal lobe involved in speech
Broca’s area
An area of the left temporal lobe involved in processing written and spoken language
Wernicke’s area
Persons whose corpus callosum have been surgically severed
Split brain patients
A type of brain trauma in which a foreign object, such as a bullet or a piece of shrapnel, pierces the skull and injures the brain
Laceration
The ability of the brain to adapt itself after trauma or surgical alteration
Plasticity
A cluster of physical and physiological symptoms occurring in a few days preceding the menstrual flow
Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)
An organisms genetic code
Genotype
Basic units of heredity that contain the individuals genetic code
Genes
Rodlike structures in the cell nucleus that house the individuals genes
Chromosomes
The observable physical, and behavioral characteristics of an organism, representing the influences of the genotype and environment
Phenotype
Traits that are influenced by multiple genes interacting in complex ways
Polygenic traits.
Studies exam in the degree to which disorders or characteristics are shared among family members
Familial association studies
Twins who developed from the same zygote and so have identical genes (monozygotic)
Identical twins
A fertilized egg cell
Zygote
Twins who developed from separate zygotes and so have 50% of their genes in common (dizygotic)
Fraternal twins
Studies that exam in the degree to which twins, share traits, characteristics, or disorders in relation to whether the twins are identical or fraternal
Twin studies
In twin studies, the percentages of cases, in which both members of twin pairs share the same trait or disorder
Concordance rates
Studies examine weather adoptees, are more similar to their biological or adoptive parents with respect to their psychological traits or the disorders they developed
Adoptee studies
The process by which we received, transform, and process, stimuli from the outside world to create sensory experiences a vision, touch, hearing, taste, smell, and so on
Sensation
The study of the relationship between features of physical stimuli, such as the intensity of light and sound, and the sensation we experience in response to the stimuli
Psychophysics
The smallest amount of a given stimulus a person can sense
Absolute threshold
The minimal difference in the magnitude of energy needed for people to detect a difference between to stimuli
Difference threshold
The principle that the amount of change in a stimulus needed to detect a difference is given by a constant ratio or fraction, called a constant, of the original stimulus
Weber’s law
The belief that the detection of a stimulus is determined by many factors, including the intensity of the stimulus, the level of background stimulation, and the biological in physiological characteristics of the preceiver
Signal detection theory
The process by which sensory receptors adapt to constant stimuli by becoming less sensitive to them
Sensory adaptation
A theory of color vision that posits that the ability to see different colors depends on the relative activity of 3 types of color receptors in the eye (red, green, and blue-violet)
Trichromatic theory
The visual image of a stimulus that remains after the stimulus is removed
Afterimage
A theory of color vision that holds that the experience of color results from opposing processes involved in 2 sets of color receptors, red-green receptors and blue-yellow receptors, and that another set of opposing receptors, black-white, is responsible for detecting differences in brightness
Opponent process theory
People with normal color vision who can discern all the colors of the visual spectrum
Trichromats
People who have no color vision and see only in black-and-white
Monochromats
People who can see some colors, but not others
Dichromats
The sense of hearing
Audition
The highness or lowness of a sound that corresponds to the frequency of the sound wave
Pitch
The nerve that carries neural impulses from the ear to the brain, which gives rise to the experience of hearing
Auditory nerve
The belief that pitch depends on the place along the basilar membrane that vibrates the most in response to a particular auditory stimulus
Place theory
The belief that pitch depends on the frequency of vibration of the basilar membrane and the volley of neural impulses transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve.
Frequency theory
The principle that relates the experience of pitch to the alternating firing of groups of neurons along the basilar membrane
Volley principle
A form of deafness, usually involving damage to the middle ear, in which there is a loss of conduction of sound vibrations through the ear
Conduction deafness
Deafness associated with nerve damage, usually involving damage to the hair cells or to the auditory nerve itself
Nerve deafness
Chemical substances that are emitted by many species and that have various functions, including sexual attraction
Pheromones
The belief that a neural gate in the spinal cord opens to allow pain messages to reach the brain and closes to shut them out
Gate control theory of pain
An ancient Chinese, practice of inserting and rotating thin needles in various parts of the body in order to release natural healing energy
Acupuncture
The sense that keeps us informed about movement of the parts of the body and their position in relation to each other
Kinesthesis
The sense that keeps us informed about balance in the position of our body in space
Vestibular sense
3 curved, tube-like canals in the inner ear that are involved in sensing changes in the direction and movement of the head
Semicircular canals
Organs in the inner ear that connect the semicircular canals
Vestibular sacs
The process by which the brain integrate, organizing, and interprets sensory impressions to create representations of the world
Perception
The process by which we attend to meaningful stimuli and filter out irrelevant or extraneous stimuli
Selective attention
Reduction in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus
Habituation
The tendency for perception to be influenced by ones expectations or preconceptions
Perceptual set
A mode of perceptual processing by which the brain recognizes meaningful patterns by piecing together bits and pieces of sensory information
Bottom up processing
A mode of perceptual processing by which the brain identifies patterns as meaningful holes rather than as piecemeal constructions
Top down processing
The principles identified by Gestalt psychologists that describe the ways in which the brain groups bit of sensory stimulation into meaningful wholes or patterns
Laws of perceptual organization
The principle that objects that are near each other will be perceived as belonging to a common set
Proximity
The principle that objects that are similar will be perceived as belonging to the same group
Similarity
The principle that a series of stimuli will be perceived as representing a unified form
Continuity
The perceptual principle that people tend to piece together disconnected bits of information to perceive whole forms
Closure
The principle the objects positioned together or move together will be perceived as belonging to the same group
Connectedness
The tendency to perceive the size, shape, color, and brightness of an object as remaining the same, even when the image it casts on the retina changes
Perceptual constancy
The tendency to perceive an object, as having the same shape despite differences in the images it casts on the retina is the viewers perspective changes
Shape constancy
The tendency to perceive an object as having the same size, despite changes in the images of casts on the retina as the viewing distance changes
Size constancy
The tendency to perceive an object as having the same color, despite changes in lighting conditions
Color constancy
The tendency to perceive objects as retaining there brightness, even when they are viewed in dim light
Brightness constancy
Cues for depth that involve both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence
Binocular cues
A binocular cue for distance based on the slight differences in the visual impressions formed in both eyes
Retinal disparity
A binocular cue for distance based on the degree of tension required to focus two eyes on the same object
Convergence
Cues for depth that can be perceived by each eye alone, such as relative size and interposition
Monocular cues
Misperceptions of visual stimuli
Visual illusions
A type of apparent movement based on the rapid succession of still images, as in motion pictures
Stroboscopic movement
An attempt to explain the Müller-Lyer illusion, in terms of the cultural experience of living in a carpentered, right-angled world like our own
Carpentered world hypothesis
Perception of stimuli presented below the threshold of conscious awareness
Subliminal perception
Perception that occurs with the benefit of the known senses
Extrasensory perception (ESP)
The study of paranormal phenomena
Parapsychology
Communication of thoughts from one mind to another that occurs without using the known senses
Telepathy
The ability to perceive objects and events without using the known senses
Clairvoyance
The ability to foretell the future
Precognition
The ability to move objects by mental effort alone
Psychokinesis
A method of learning to control certain bodily responses by using information transmitted by physiological monitoring equipment
Biofeedback training
A form of biofeedback training that involves feedback about changes in temperature in blood flow in selected parts of the body semicolon used in the treatment of migraine headaches
Thermal biofeedback
A prolonged, intense headache brought on by changes in blood flow in the brains blood vessels
Migraine
A state of awareness of ourselves & of the world around us
Consciousness
A state of heightened alertness and which one is fully absorbed in the task at hand
Focused awareness
A state of awareness characterized by drifting thoughts or mental imagery
Drifting consciousness
A form of consciousness during a waking state in which one’s mind wanders to dreaming thoughts or fantasies
Daydreaming
A state of awareness characterized by divided attention to two or more tasks or activities performed at the same time
Divided consciousness
States of awareness during wakefulness that are different from the persons usual waking state
Altered states of consciousness
The pattern of fluctuations in bodily processes that occur regularly each day
Circadian rhythm
A disruption of sleep wake cycles caused by the shifts in time zones that accompany long-distance air travel
Jetlag
The stage of sleep that involves rapid eye movement, and that is most closely associated with periods of dreaming
Rapid eye movement sleep
REM
The proposition that dreams represent the brains attempt to make sense of the random discharges of electrical activity that occur during REM sleep
Activation synthesis hypothesis
Dreams in which the dreamers aware that he or she is dreaming
Lucid dreams
Difficulty falling asleep, remaining asleep, or returning to sleep after night time awakenings
Insomnia
A disorder characterized by sudden unexplained “sleep attacks” during the day
Narcolepsy
Temporary cessation of breathing during sleep
Sleep apnea
A sleep disorder involving a pattern of frequent, disturbing nightmares
Nightmare disorder
Sleep disorder involving repeated episodes of intense fear during sleep, causing the person to awake abruptly in a terrified state
Sleep terror disorder
A sleep disorder characterized by repeated episodes of sleepwalking
Sleepwalking disorder
The process of focused attention that induces a relax, contemplative state
Meditation
Before my meditation which practitioners focus their attention by repeating a particular mantra
Transcendental meditation (TM)
A sound or phrase chanted repeatedly during transcendental meditation
Mantra
A form of meditation, and which one adopt a state of nonjudgmental attention to the unfolding of experience on a moment to moment basis
Mindfulness meditation
An altered state of consciousness, characterized by focused attention, deep relaxation, and heightened susceptibility to suggestion
Hypnosis
A hypnotically induced experience that involves experiencing past events in one’s life
Hypnotic age regression
A loss of feeling or responsiveness to pain in certain parts of the body occurring during Hypnosis
Hypnotic analgesia
And inability to recall what happen during hypnosis
Posthypnotic amnesia
A hypnotist’s suggestion that the subject will respond in a particular way following hypnosis
Posthypnotic suggestion
A theory of hypnosis based on the belief that hypnosis represents a state of disassociation (divided) consciousness
Neodissociation theory
Hilgard’s term for a part of consciousness that remains detached from the hypnotic experience, but aware of everything that happens during it
Hidden observer
Chemical substances that affect a persons mental or emotional state
Psychoactive drugs
Maladaptive or dangerous use of a chemical substance
Drug abuse
People who abuse more than one drug at a time
Polyabusers
A severe drug related problem characterized by impaired control over the use of the drug
Drug dependence
A state of physical dependence on a drug caused by repeated usage that changes body chemistry
Physiological dependence
A cluster of symptoms associated with abrupt withdraw from a drug
Withdrawal syndrome
A form of physical habituation to a drug in which increased amounts are needed to achieve the same affect
Tolerance
Drug dependence accompanied by signs of physiological dependence, such as the development of a withdrawal syndrome
Drug addiction
A pattern of compulsive or habitual use of a drug to satisfy a psychological need
Psychological dependence
Drugs, such as alcohol and barbiturates, that dampen central nervous system activity
Depressants
A chemical substance that induces a state of drunkenness
Intoxicant
The chemical addiction characterized by impaired control over the use of alcohol and physiological dependence on it
Alcoholism
Addictive drugs that have pain relieving and sleep inducing properties
Narcotics
Drugs that increase the level of activity of the central nervous system and increase alertness and wakefulness
Stimulants
Drugs that alter sensory experiences in produce hallucinations
Hallucinogens
A mental state characterized by confusion, disorientation, difficulty, focusing attention, and excitable behavior
Delirium
A process of clearing drugs or toxins from the body
Detoxification
A relatively permanent change in behavior acquired through experience
Learning
The process of learning by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit an identical or similar response to one originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing of the two stimuli
Classical conditioning
An unlearned response to a stimulus
Unconditioned response
A stimulus that elicits and unlearned response
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response
Neutral stimulus
An acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus
Conditioned response
A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response
Extinction
Spontaneous return of a conditioned response following extinction
Spontaneous recovery
The process of relearning a conditioned response following extinction
Reconditioning
The tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
Stimulus generalization
The tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related to the original condition, stimulus, but not identical to it, failed to elicit a conditioned response
Stimulus discrimination
The process by which a new stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response as a result of it being paired with a conditioned stimulus that already elicits a conditioned response
Higher order conditioning
An emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning
Conditioned emotional reaction
Excessive fears of particular objects or situations
Phobias
A form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning
Behavior therapy
Aversions to particular taste acquired through classical conditioning
Conditioned taste aversions
Thorndike’s principle that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, while those that have unpleasant attacks are less likely to recur
Law of effect
The philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth, and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic information
Radical behavioralism
An experimental apparatus developed by B. F. Skinner for studying relationships between reinforcement and behavior
Skinner box
The process of learning by which a response is strengthened by means of manipulating the consequences of the response
Operant conditioning
A stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated
. Reinforcer
In Skinner’s view, behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and reinforcement
Superstitious behavior
Strengthening of a response by presenting a positive or rewarding stimulus after the response occurs
Positive reinforcement
Strengthening of a response to the removal of the stimulus after the response occurs
Negative reinforcement
Such as food or sexual stimulation, that are naturally regarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives
Primary reinforcers
Learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers
A cue that signals that reinforcement is available, if the subject makes a particular response
Discriminative stimulus
A process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasing closer approximations to the desired response
Shaping
The method used to shape behavior that involves reinforcing ever closer approximations to the desired response
Method of successive approximations
Predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement
A system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a desired response is produced
Schedule of continuous reinforcement
A system of dispensing reinforcement, in which only a portion of the desired responses is reinforced
Schedule of partial reinforcement
The learning of behaviors that allow an organism to escape from an aversive stimulus
Escape learning
The introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus, following a particular behavior, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response
Punishment
The systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior
Behavior modification (B-mod)
A form of behavior modification in which tokens turned from performing desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers
Token economy program
A learning method in which complex material is broken down into a series of small steps, that learners master at their own pace
Programmed instruction
A form of programmed instruction in which a computer is used to guide a student through a series of increasingly difficult questions
Computer-assisted instruction
Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it
Cognitive learning
The process of mentally working through a problem, until the sudden realization of a solution of hers
Insight learning
Learning that occurs without a parent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided
Latent learning
A mental representation of an area that helps an organism navigate its away from one point to another
Cognitive map
Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others
Observational learning
Vicarious learning
Modeling
The system that allows us to retain information and bring it to mind
Memory
The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory
Memory encoding
The process of retaining information in memory
Memory storage
The process of assessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory
Memory retrieval
Cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories
Retrieval cues
The belief that retrieval will be more successful and cues available during recall are similar to those present when the material was first committed to memory
Encoding specificity principle
The tendency for information to be better recalled in the same contacts in which was originally learned
State dependent memory effect
A model of memory that posits 3 distinct stages of memory ; sensory memory, short term memory, & long-term memory
Three stage model
The storage system that holds memory of sensory impressions for a very short time
Sensory memory
A temporary storage device for holding sensory memories
Sensory register
A sensory storage for holding a mental representation of a visual image for a fraction of a second
Iconic memory
A lingering mental representation of a visual image
Eidetic imagery
Photographic memory
A sensory store for holding a mental representation of a sound for a few seconds after the registers in the ears
Echoic memory
The memory subsystem that allows for retention in processing of newly acquired information for a maximum of about 30 seconds
Short term memory
Working memory
The process of enhancing retention of a large amount of information by breaking it down into smaller, more easily recalled chunks
Chunking
The process of extending retention of information held in short-term memory by consciously repeating the information
Maintenance rehearsal
The speech based part of working memory that allows for the verbal rehearsal of sounds or words
Phonological loop
The storage buffer for a visual-spatial material held in short term memory
Visuospatial sketchpad
The workspace of working memory were information from visual, auditory, and other modalities are brought together
Episodic buffer
The component of working memory responsible for coordinating the other subsystems, receiving and processing stored information, and filtering out distracting thought
Central executive
The memory subsystem responsible for long-term storage of information
Long-term memory
The process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories
Consolidation
The process of transferring information from short term, memory to long-term memory by consciously focusing on the meaning of the information
Elaborative rehearsal
A representation of the organizational structure of long-term memory into networks of associated concepts
Semantic network model
The belief that how well or how long information is remember, depends on the depth of encoding or processing
Levels of processing theory
Memory of fax and personal information that requires a conscious effort to bring to mind
Declarative memory
Explicit memory
Memory of facts and general information about the world
Semantic memory
Memory of personal experiences
Episodic memory
Memory of past experiences or events, and previously required information
Retrospective memory
Memory of things, one plans to do in the future
Prospective memory
Memory of how to do things that require motor or performance skills
Procedural memory
Memory accessed without conscious effort
Implicit memory
Memory access through conscious effort
Explicit memory
A theory that holds that memory is not a replica of the past but a representation, or reconstruction, of the past
Constructionist theory
An organized knowledge structure, such as a set of beliefs, reflecting ones past experiences, expectancies, and knowledge about the world
Memory schema
Enduring memories of emotional charged events that same permanently seared into the brain
Flashbulb memories
A form of memory distortion that affects eyewitness testimony and that is caused by misinformation provided during the retention interval
Misinformation effect
A theory of forgetting that posits that memories consist of traces lay down in the brain that gradually deteriorate and fadeaway over time
Decay theory
Trace theory
A method of testing memory retention by comparing the numbers of trials needed to learn material with the number of trials needed to relearn the material at a later time
Savings method
The tendency for retention of learned material to be greater with spaced practice than with massed practice
Massed vs. Spaced practice effect
The belief that forgetting is the result of the interference of memories with each other
Interference theory
A form of interference in which newly acquired information interferes with retention of material learned earlier
Retroactive interference
A form of interference in which material learned earlier interferes with retention of newly acquired information
Proactive interference
Practice repeated be on the point necessary to reproduce material without error
Overlearning
The tendency to recall items at the start or end of a list better than items in the middle of a list
Serial position effect
The tendency to recall items better when they are learned first
Primary effect
The tendency to recall items better when they are learned last
Recency effect
The belief that forgetting is the result of a failure to access storage memories
Retrieval theory
An experience in which people are sure they know something but can’t seem to bring it to mind
Tip of the tongue phenomenon
In Freudian theory, a type of defense mechanism involving motivated forgetting of anxiety-evoking material
Repression
A memory task, such as an essay test, requiring retrieval of stored information with minimal cues available
Recall task
A method of measuring memory retention that accesses the ability to select the correct answer from among a range of alternative answers.
Recognition task
Loss of memory
Amnesia
Loss of memory of past events
Retrograde amnesia
Loss or impairment of ability to form or store new memories
Anterograde amnesia
The normal occurrence of amnesia for events occurring during infancy and early childhood
Childhood amnesia
A psychological beast form of amnesia involving the “ splitting off” from memory of traumatic or trouble experiences
Dissociative amnesia
Lashley’s term for the physical traits of etching of a memory in the brain
Engram
The long-term strengthening of neural connections, as the result of repeated stimulation
Long-term potentiation
A device for improving memory
Mnemonic
They word composed of the first letters of a series of words
Acronym
A verse or saying in which a certain letter of each word stands for something else
Acrostic
The branch of psychology that forces on such mental processes as thinking, problem-solving, decision making, can use of language
Cognitive psychology
The process of mentally representing and manipulating information
Thinking
A mental picture or representation of an object or event
Mental image
Mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features or properties
Concepts
Concepts with clearly defined rules for membership
Logical concepts
Concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership
Natural concepts
The broadest concepts in a three level hierarchy of concepts
Superordinate concepts
The middle level of concepts in a three level hierarchy of concepts, corresponding to the categories be most often used in grouping objects and events
Basic level concepts
The narrowest level of concepts in a three level hierarchy of concepts
Subordinate concepts
An object that fits a particular concept
Positive instance
An object that does not fit a particular concept
Negative instance
A form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem
Problem-solving
A step by step set of rules used to solve a problem
Algorithm
A rule of thumb for solving problems or making judgments or decisions
Heuristic
In problem-solving, a strategy based on using similarities between the properties of two things or applying solutions to past problem to the problem at hand
Analogy
A respite from active problem-solving efforts, which may facilitate finding a solution
Incubation period
The tendency to rely on strategies that work in similar situations in the past but that may not be appropriate to the present situation
Mental set
The tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve
Functional fixedness
A form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from among the available alternatives
Decision making
The tendency to maintain allegiance to an initial hypothesis, despite strong evidence to the contrary
Confirmation bias
A rule of thumb for making a judgment that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population from which it is drawn
Representative heuristic
The tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them comes readily to mind
Availability heuristic
The tendency for decisions to be influenced by how potential outcomes are phrased
Framing
Originality of thought associated with the development of new, workable products or solutions to problems
Creativity
The ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situation in new uses for familiar objects
Divergent thinking
The attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to converge on the one correct answer to a problem
Convergent thinking
Combination of two or more concepts into one concept, resulting in the creation of a novel idea or application
Conceptual combination
The expansion of familiar concept into new uses
Conceptual expansion
A system of communication composed of symbols that are arranged according to a set of rules to form meaningful expressions
Language
The set of rules governing how symbols in a given language are used to form meaningful expressions
Grammar
The basic unit of sound in a language
Phonemes
The smallest unit of meaning in a language
Morphemes
The rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences or phrases to form meaningful expressions
Syntax
The set of rules governing the meaning of words
Semantics
Chomsky’s concept of an innate, pre-wired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally
Language acquisition device
The proposition that the language we use determines how we think and how we perceive the world
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
The capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing ones goals
Intelligence
A representation of a persons intelligence, based on the age of people who are capable of performing at the same level of ability
Mental age
A measure of intelligence based on performance on tests of mental abilities, expressed as a ratio between one’s mental age and chronological age or derived from the deviation of one’s scores from the norms for those of one’s age group
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
The standard used to compare an individual’s performance on a test with the performance of others
Norms
The process of establishing norms for a test by administering the test to large numbers of people who constitute a standardization sample
Standardization
The consistency of test scores over time
Reliability
The degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure
Validity
Tests designed to eliminate cultural biases
Culture fair tests
A generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual & social skills
Mental retardation
The practice of placing children with special needs in a regular classroom environment
Mainstreaming
7 basic mental abilities that Thurstone believed constitute intelligence
Primary mental abilities
Gardner’s term for the distinct types of intelligence that characterize different forms of intelligent behavior
Multiple intelligences
Sternberg’s theory of intelligence that posits 3 aspects of intelligence : analytic, creative, & practical
Triarchic theory of intelligence
The degree to which heredity accounts for variations on a given trait within a population
Heritability
A method of promoting divergent thinking by encouraging people to propose as many solutions to a problem as possible without fear of being judged negatively by others, no matter how far-fetched their proposals may be
Brainstorming
Factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal directed behavior
Motivation
Needs or wants that drive goal directed behavior
Motives
Genetically programmed, innate patterns of responses that are specific to members of a particular species
Instinctive behavior’s
The belief that behavior is motivated by instinct
Instinct theory
The belief that behavior is motivated by drives that arise from biological needs that demand satisfaction
Drive theory
A state of deprivation or deficiency
Need
A state of bodily tension, such as hunger or thirst, that arises from an unmet need
Drive
Satisfaction of a drive
Drive reduction
Innate drives, such as hunger, thirst, sexual desire, which arise from basic biological needs
Primary drives
Drives that are learned or acquired through experience, such as the drive to achieve monetary wealth
Secondary drives
Internal states that prompt inquisitive, stimulation-seeking, and exploratory behavior
Stimulus motives
The belief that whenever the level of stimulation dips below an organisms optimal level, the organism seeks ways of increasing it
arousal theory
The belief that are attraction to particular goals or objects motivates much of our behavior
Incentive theory
Rewards or other stimuli that motivate us to act
Incentives
The strength of the “pull” of a goal or reward
Incentive value
A state of internal tension brought about by conflicting attitudes and behavior
Cognitive dissonance
The belief that people are motivated to resolve discrepancies between their behavior in their attitudes or beliefs
Cognitive dissonance theory
The tendency to place greater value on goals that are difficult to achieve in order to justify the effort expended in attaining them
Effort justification
Needs that reflect interpersonal aspects of motivation, such as the need for friendship or achievement
Psychosocial needs
The need to excel in one’s endeavors
Need for achievement
Motivation reflecting a desire for external rewards, such as wealth or the respect of others
Extrinsic motivation
Motivation reflecting a desire for internal gratification, such as the self-satisfaction derived from accomplishing a particular goal
Intrinsic motivation
The motive or desire to achieve success in excel at what we do
Achievement motivation
The motive or desire to avoid failure
Avoidance motivation
Maslow’s concept that there is an order to human needs, which starts with a basic biological needs and progresses to self-actualization
Hierarchy of needs
The motive that drives individuals to express their unique capabilities and fulfill their potential’s
Self actualization
A part of the hypothalamus involved in initiating eating (turning on)
Lateral hypothalamus
A part of the hypothalamus involved in regulating feelings of satiety
Ventromedial hypothalamus
A condition of excess body fat
Obesity
A standard measure of obesity based on body weight adjusted for height
Body mass index
The belief that brain mechanisms regulate body weight around a genetically predetermined “set point”
Set point theory
____________ is a form of self starvation that result in an unhealthy and potentially dangerous low body weight, characterized by both and intense fear of becoming fat and a distorted body image
Anorexia nervosa
____________ is characterized by a repetitive pattern of binge eating, followed by purging (self-induced vomiting and or laxatives)
Bulimia nervosa
Complex feeling states that psychologist view as having physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components
Emotions
Cultural customs and norms that govern the display of emotional expressions
Display rules
The belief that mimicking facial movements associated with a particular emotion will produce the corresponding emotional state
Facial-feedback hypothesis
A genuine smile that involves contraction of a particular set of facial muscles
Duchenne smile
Love involving strong erotic attraction and desire for intimacy
Romantic love
Sternberg’s concept of love as a triangle with 3 components : intimacy, passion, & decision/commitment
Triangular model of love
The belief that emotions occur after people become aware of their physiological responses to the triggering stimuli
James-Lange theory
The belief that emotional and physiological reactions to triggering stimuli occur almost simultaneously
Cannon-Bard theory
The theory that emotions involve 2 factors : a state of general arousal and a cognitive interpretation (labeling) of the causes of the arousal
2-factor model
LeDoux’s theory that the brain uses 2 pathways to process fear messages (“high road and low road”)
Dual-pathway model of fear
The ability to recognize emotions in oneself and others, and to manage one’s own emotions effectively
Emotional intelligence
The branch of psychology that explores, physical, emotional, cognitive, & social aspects of development
Developmental psychology
The debate in psychology over the relative influences of genetics & environment in determining behavior (nature vs. nurture)
Nature-Nurture debate
The model proposing that development involves quantitative changes that occur in small steps over time
Continuity model
The model proposing that development progresses and discreet stages that involve abrupt, qualitative changes in cognitive ability and ways of interacting with the world
Discontinuity model
Study that compares the same individuals that periodic intervals over an extended period of time
Longitudinal study
Study that compares individuals of different ages or developmental level at the same point in time
Cross-sectional study
Differences between age groups as a function of historical or social influences affecting those groups rather than age per se
Cohort effect
The release of an ovum from an ovary
Ovulation
A strawlike to between an ovary and the uterus, through which an ovum passes after ovulation
Fallopian tube
A fertilized egg cell is called a __________
Zygote
The stage of prenatal development that spans the period from fertilization through implantation
Germinal stage
The stage of prenatal development from implantation through about the 8th week of pregnancy, during which the major organ systems begin to form
Embryonic stage
The area in the embryo from which the nervous system develops
Neural tube
The stage of prenatal development in which the fetus develops, beginning with the 9th week of pregnancy and lasting until the birth of the child
Fetal stage
A neural tube defect in which the child is born with a hole in the tube surrounding the spinal cord
Spina bifida
And environmental influence our agent that may harm the developing embryo or fetus
Teratogen
A common childhood disease that may lead to serious birth defects, if contracted by the mother during pregnancy
Rubella
Also called German measles
The sudden and unexplained death of infants that usually occurs when they are asleep in their cribs
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
A syndrome caused by maternal use of alcohol during pregnancy in which the child shows developmental delays and facial deformities
Fetal alcohol syndrome
A technique for diagnosing fetal abnormalities involving examination of extracted fetal cells
Amniocentesis
A technique of detecting fetal abnormalities that involve examination of fetal material extracted from the chorion
Chorionic villus sampling
The membrane that contains the amniotic sac and fetus
Chorion
A chromosomal disorder characterized by mental retardation and certain facial abnormalities
Down syndrome
The reflexive turning of the newborns head in the direction of a touch on its cheek
Rooting reflex
The reflexive blinking of the eyes that protects the newborn from bright light and foreign objects
Eyeblink reflex
Rhythmic sucking in response to stimulation of the tongue or mouth
Sucking reflex
An inborn reflex, elicited by sudden noise or loss of support, in which the infant extends its arms, arches it’s back, and brings its arms toward each other, as though attempting to grab a hold of someone
Moro reflex
The reflexive curling of the infants fingers around an object that touches it’s palm
Palmar grasp reflex
The reflexive fanning out and curling of an infants toes and inward twisting of its foot when the sole of the foot is stroked
Babinski reflex
The biological unfolding of the organism according to the underlying genetic code
Maturation
A characteristics style of behavior or disposition
Temperament
The enduring emotional bond that infants and older children form with their caregivers
Attachment
The process by which parents develop strong ties to their newborns, which may form in the first few hours following birth
Bonding
The formation of a strong bond of the newborn animal to the first moving object scene after birth
Imprinting
Ainsworth’s method for assessing infant attachment to the mother, based on a series of brief separations and reunions with mother and a playroom situation
Strange situation
Generalized expectations, developed in early childhood, about how others are likely to respond in close relationships
Internal working models
In Piaget’s theory, a mental framework for understanding or acting on the environment
Schema
In Piaget’s theory, the process of adjustment that enables people to function more effectively and meeting the demands they face in the environment
Adaptation
In Piaget’s theory, the process of incorporating new objects or situations into existing schemas
Assimilation
In Piaget’s theory, the process of creating new scammers, or modifying existing ones to account for new objects or experiences
Accommodation
The recognition, the objects continue to exist even if they have disappeared from site
Object permanence
Symbols that stand for names and experiences ; specifically the words in a language
Symbolic representations
In Piaget’s theory, the tendency to see the world only from one’s own perspective
Egocentrism
In Piaget’s theory, the child’s believe that inanimate objects have living qualities
Animistic thinking
In Piaget’s theory, the inability to reverse the direction of a sequence of events to their starting point
Irreversibility
In Piaget’s theory, the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at a time
Centration
In Piaget’s theory, the ability to recognize that the quantity or amount of an object remains constant despite superficial changes in its outward appearance
Conservation
The level of full cognitive maturity in Piaget’s theory, characterized by the ability to think in abstract terms
Formal operations
In Vygotsky’s theory, and the range between children’s present level of knowledge and their potential now which state if they receive proper guidance and instruction
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
In Vygotsky’s theory, tailoring the degree in type of instruction to the child’s current level of ability or knowledge
Scaffolding
The period of life beginning at puberty and ending with early adulthood
Adolescence
The stage of development at which individuals become physiologically capable of reproducing
Puberty
Physical characteristics that differentiate males, and females that are not directly involved in the production
Secondary sex characteristics
Physical characteristics, such as the gonads, that differentiate males and females and play a direct role and reproduction
Primary sex characteristics
The common belief among adolescents, that they are the center of other peoples attention
Imaginary audience
The common belief among adolescents, that their feelings and experiences cannot possibly be understood by others and that they are personally invulnerable to harm
Personal fable
In Erickson’s theory, the attainment of a psychological sense of knowing oneself and one’s direction in life
Ego identity
In Erickson’s view, a stressful period of serious soul-searching and self examination of issues relating to personal values and one’s direction in life
Identity crisis
In Erickson’s model, a lack of direction or aimlessness with respect to one’s role in life or public identity
Role diffusion
A form of intelligence associated with the ability to think abstractly and flexibly in solving problems
Fluid intelligence
A form of intelligence associated with the ability to use accumulated knowledge
Crystallized intelligence
The time of life when menstruation ends
Menopause
In some cultures, the period of psychosocial development, roughly spanning ages 18 - 25 during which the person makes the transition from adolescence to adulthood
Emerging adulthood
A state of psychological crisis, often occurring during middle adulthood, in which people grapple with the loss of their youth
Midlife crisis
A cluster of negative emotions, involving a loss of purpose and direction that can occur when children have grown and left home
Empty nest syndrome
The tendency for people to marry others who are similar to themselves
Homogamy
Prejudice and discrimination directed at older people
Ageism
A psychological state of deprivation involving feelings of grief and loss resulting from the death of a loved one or close friend
Bereavement
The expression of sorrow or grief in accordance with a set of customs, such as wearing black clothing
Mourning
A bone disease characterized by a loss of bone density in which the bone becomes porous, brittle, and more prone to fracture
Osteoporosis
The state of maleness out femaleness
Gender
A cultural expectations imposed on men and women to behave in ways deemed appropriate for their gender
Gender roles
The psychological sense of maleness or femaleness
Gender identity
A mismatch in which one’s gender identity is inconsistent with one’s chromosomal an anatomic sex
Transsexualism
The belief that children for mental representations or scammers of masculinity and femininity, which they then use as a bias for organizing their behavior and evaluating their self-worth
Gender-schema theory
A type of gender role identification, that characterizes people who possess high levels of both masculinity and feminine traits
Androgyny
A learning disorder characterized by impaired ability to read
Dyslexia
The term used by masters and Johnson to refer to the characteristic stages of physiological response to sexual stimulation
Sexual response cycle
Swelling of tissues with blood, a process that accounts for penile erection and vaginal lubrication during sexual arousal
Vasocongestion
A state of muscle tension or rigidity
Myotonia
The directionality of one’s erotic interests
Sexual orientation
Unreasoning, fear and loathing of people with a homosexual sexual orientation
Homophobia
A psychological disorder involving atypical or deviant patterns of sexual attraction
Paraphilia
A type of paraphilia involving use of objects as sources of sexual arousal
Fetishism
A type of paraphilia involving cross dressing for purposes of sexual arousal
Transvestism
A type of paraphilia that involves watching unsuspecting others as they disrobe or engage in sexual activities
Voyeurism
A type of paraphilia characterized by exposing ones generals to unsuspecting others for purposes of sexual arousal
Exhibitionism
A type of paraphilia involving sexual attraction to children
Pedophilia
A type of paraphilia involving the confliction of physical suffering or humiliation on another person for purposes of sexual gratification
Sexual sadism
A type of paraphilia involving the recipient of painful or humiliating experiences as part of a sexual act
Sexual masochism
Persistent or recurrent problems with sexual interest, arousal, or response
Sexual dysfunctions
A type of sexual desire disorder characterized by an absence or lack of sexual interest or desire
Hypoactive sexual desire disorder
A type of sexual desire disorder involving repulsion or strong aversion to genital sexual contact
Sexual aversion disorder
Anxiety experienced in performance situations stemming from a fear of negative evaluation of one’s ability to perform
Performance anxiety
A technique used in sex therapy that consists of non-genital massage to lessen the anxiety associated with sexual interactions
Sensate-focus exercises
Sexual intercourse with a person who is under the legal age of consent, even if the person is a willing participant
Statutory rape
A form of sexual coercion involving unwelcome sexual comments, jokes, overtures, demands for sexual favors, or outright physical contact
Sexual harassment
The specialty in psychology that focuses on the inter-relationships between psychological factors & physical health
Health psychology
Pressure or demand placed on an organism to adjust or adapt
Stress
A state of emotional or physical suffering, discomfort, or pain
Distress
Sources of stress
Stressors
Annoyances of daily life that impose a stressful burden
Hassles
Continuing or lingering stress
Chronic stress
A negative emotional state experienced when one’s efforts to pursue ones goals are thwarted
Frustration
A state of tension brought about by opposing motives operating simultaneously
Conflict
A psychological disorder involving a maladaptive reaction to traumatic stress
Post traumatic stress disorder
A behavior pattern characterized by impatience, time urgency, competitiveness, & hostility
Type A behavior pattern
Demands faced by immigrants in adjusting to a host culture
Acculturative stress
Selye’s term for the 3 stage response of the body to persistent or intense stress
General adaptation syndrome (GAS)
The first stage of the general adaptation syndrome, evolving mobilization of the bodies resources to cope with an immediate stressor
Alarm stage
The bodies built an alarm system that allows it to quickly mobilizes resources to either fight or flight, when faced with a threatening stressor
Fight or flight response
The second stage of the general adaptation syndrome, characterized by the body’s attempt to adjust or adapt to persistent stress
Resistance stage
The third stage of the general adaptation syndrome, characterized by depletion of bodily resources and a lowered resistance to stress related disorders or conditions
Exhaustion stage
Beliefs about one’s ability to accomplish particular tasks
Self-efficacy
A cluster of traits that may buffer the effects of stress (commitment, openness to challenge, internal locus of control)
Psychological hardiness
__________ is a state of physical and emotional exhaustion and reduced effectiveness resulting from handling excessive job demands, caregiving responsibilities, or other stress-laden commitments
Burnout
Freud’s theory of personality, which holds that personality and behavior are shaped by unconscious forces and conflicts
Psychoanalytic theory
In Freudian theory, the part of the mind corresponding to the state of present awareness
Conscious
To Freud, the part of the mind whose contents can be brought into awareness through focused attention
Preconscious
In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that lies outside the range of ordinary awareness that contains primitive drives or instincts and unacceptable urges, wishes, or ideas
Unconscious
Freud’s term for the psychic structure existing in the unconscious that contains our basic animal drives and instinctual impulses
ID
Freud’s term for the psychic structure that attempts to balance, the instinctual demands of the ID with social realities and expectations
Ego
Freud’s term for the psychic structure that corresponds to the internal moral guardian or conscience
Superego
In Freud’s theory, a governing principle of the ID that is based on demand for instant gratification without regard to social rules or customs
Pleasure principle
In Freudian theory, the governing principle of the ego that takes into account what is practical and acceptable and satisfying basic needs
Reality principle
In Freudian theory, the reality-distorting strategies of the ego to prevent awareness of anxiety-provoking or trouble ideas or impulses
Defense mechanisms
In Freudian theory, a type of defense mechanism involving motivated forgetting of anxiety-evoking material
Repression
In freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving a failure to recognize a threatening impulse or urge
Denial
In Freudian theory, defense mechanism involving a behavior that stands in opposition to one’s true motives and desires so as to prevent conscious awareness of them
Reaction formation
In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the use of self-justification to explain away unacceptable behavior, impulses, or ideas
Rationalization
In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the projection of one’s own unacceptable impulses, wishes, or urges onto another person
Projection
In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism involving the channeling of unacceptable impulses in to socially sanctioned behaviors or interests
Sublimation
In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism, in which an individual, usually under high levels of stress, reverts to a behavior characteristic of an earlier stage of development
Regression
In Freudian theory, a defense mechanism in which an unacceptable sexual or aggressive impulse is transferred to an object or person that is safer or less threatening than the original object of the impulse
Displacement
Parts of the body that are especially sensitive to sexual or pleasurable stimulation
Erogenous zones
Constellations of personality traits characteristic of a particular stage of psychosexual development, resulting from either excessive or an adequate gratification at that stage
Fixations
In Freudian theory, the first stage of psychosexual development during which the infant seeks sexual gratification through oral stimulation (sucking, mouthing, and biting)
Oral stage
In Freudian theory, the second stage of psychosexual development during which sexual gratification is centered on processes of elimination (retention & release of bowel contents)
Anal stage
In Freudian theory, a personality type characterized by perfectionism and excessive needs for self control as expressed through extreme neatness and punctuality
Anal retentive personality
In Freudian theory, a personality type characterized by messiness, lack of self discipline, & carelessness
Anal-expulsive personality
In Freudian theory, the third stage of psychosexual development marked by erotic attention on the phallic region (penis or clitoris) and the development of the Oedipus complex
Phallic stage
In Freudian theory, the psychological complex in which the young boy or a girl develops incestuous feelings towards the parent of the opposite gender and perceives the parent of the same gender as a rival
Oedipus complex
The term given by some psychodynamic theorists to the form of the Oedipus complex in young girls
Electra complex
In Freudian theory, unconscious fear of removal of the penis as punishment for having unacceptable sexual impulses
Castration anxiety
In Freudian theory, jealousy of boys for having a penis
Penis envy
In Freudian theory, the fourth stage of psychosexual development during which sexual impulses remain latent or dormant
Latency stage
In Freudian theory, the fifth and final stage of psychosexual development which begins around puberty and corresponds to the development of mature sexuality and emphasis on procreation
Genital stage
Jung’s term for an unconscious region of mind comprising a reservoir of the individuals repressed memories and impulses
Personal unconscious
In Jung’s theory, a part of the mind containing ideas and archetypal images shared among humankind that has been transmitted genetically from ancestral humans
Collective unconscious
Jung’s term for the primitive images contained in the collective unconscious that reflect ancestral or universal experiences of human beings
Archetypes
Adler’s theory of personality, which emphasizes the unique potential of each individual
Individual psychology
In Adler’s theory, the self-aware part of personality that organizes goal seeking efforts
Creative self
In Adler’s theory, the feelings of inadequacy, or inferiority in young children that influence their developing personalities and create desires to overcome
Inferiority complex
Adler’s term for the motivation to compensate for feelings of inferiority
Drive for superiority
Will to power
In Horney’s theory, a deep-seated form of anxiety and children that is associated with feelings of being isolated and helpless in a world perceived as potentially threatening and hostile
Basic anxiety
In Horney’s theory, deep feelings of resentment that children may harbor toward their parents
Basic hostility
Relatively enduring personal characteristics
Traits
Allport’s term for the more persuasive dimensions that define individuals general personality
Cardinal traits
Allport’s term for personality characteristics that have a widespread influence on the individuals behavior across situations
Central traits
Allport’s term for a specific traits that influence behavior and relatively few situation’s
Secondary traits
Cattell’s term for personality traits at the surface level that can be gleaned from observations of behavior
Surface traits
Cattell’s term for traits at a deep level of personality that are not a parent and observed behavior but must be inferred based on underlying relationships among surface traits
Source traits
Tendency toward being solitary and reserved on the one end or outgoing & sociable on the other end
Introversion-extraversion
Tendencies toward emotional instability, anxiety, & worry
Neuroticism
Tendencies to be perceived by others as cold and antisocial
Psychoticism
The dominant contemporary trait, model of personality, consisting of 5 Broad, personality factors:
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Openness
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Five factor model
Play contemporary learning based model that emphasizes the roles played by both cognitive factors and environmental or situational factors in determining behavior
Social cognitive theory
In social cognitive theory, personal predictions about the outcomes of behavior
Expectancies
In social cognitive theory, the importance, that individuals place on desired outcomes
Subjective value
In Rotter’s theory, one’s general expectancies about whether ones efforts can bring about desired outcomes or reinforcements
Locus of control
Bandura’s model in which cognitions, behaviors, and environmental factors both influence and are influenced by each other
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura’s term for our personal predictions about the outcomes of our behavior
Outcome expectations
Bandura’s term for the expectancies we have regarding our ability to perform behaviors we set out to accomplish
Efficacy expectations
Mischel’s term for environmental influences on behavior, such as rewards and punishments
Situational variables
Mischel’s term for internal personal factors that influence behavior, including competencies, expectancies, and subjective values
Person variables
Rogers’s model of personality, which focuses on the importance of the self
Self theory
Valuing another person as having intrinsic worth, regardless of the persons behavior at the particular time
Unconditional positive regard
Valuing a person only when the persons behavior meet certain expectations or standards
Conditional positive regard
Rogers’s term for the idealized sense of who or what we should be
Self ideal
A culture that emphasizes peoples social roles and obligations
Collectivistic culture
A culture that emphasizes individual identity and personal accomplishment
Individualistic culture
The now-discredited view that one can judge a persons character and mental abilities by measuring the bumps on his or her head
Phrenology
Structured psychological tests that use formal methods of assessing personality
Personality tests
Personality tests that can be scored objectively because the response options are limited, and because items were derived on the basis of research evidence
Objective tests
Scores that represent an individual’s relative deviation from the mean of the standardization sample
Standard scores
Personality tests in which ambiguous or vague test materials are used to elicit responses that are believed to reveal a persons unconscious needs, drives, & motives
Projective tests
Perceptions experienced in the absence of external stimuli
Hallucinations
Fixed but patently false beliefs, such as believing that one is being hounded by demons
Delusions
Psychological disorders found it only one or a few cultures
Culture-bound syndromes
A culture-bound syndrome found in India in which men develop intense fears about losing semen
Dhat syndrome
A framework for understanding abnormal behavior patterns are symptoms of underlying physical disorders or diseases
Medical model
An integrative model for explaining abnormal behavior patterns in terms of the interactions of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors
Biopsychosocial model
A type of biopsychosocial model that relates the development of disorders to the combination of a diathesis or predisposition usually genetic an origin and exposure to stressful events or life circumstances
Diathesis stress model
A vulnerability or predisposition to developing a disorder
Diathesis
Abnormal behavior patterns, characterized by disturbances in behavior, thinking, perceptions, or emotions that are associated with significant personal distress or impaired functioning
Psychological disorders
Mental disorders
Mental illnesses
Irrational or excessive fears of objects or situations
Phobias
A type of anxiety disorder involving excessive fear of social situations
Social phobia
Phobic reactions involving specific situation or objects
Specific phobia
Excessive fear of heights
Acrophobia
Excessive fear of enclosed spaces
Claustrophobia
Excessive fear of being in public places
Agoraphobia
A type of anxiety disorder involving repeated episodes of sheer terror called panic attacks
Panic disorder
A type of anxiety disorder involving persistent and generalized anxiety and worry
Generalized anxiety disorder
A type of anxiety disorder involving the repeated occurrence of obsessions and/or compulsions
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
A class of psychological disorders involving changes in consciousness, memory, or self identity
Dissociative disorders
A class of psychological disorders involving physical ailments or complaints that cannot be explained by organic causes
Somatoform disorders
A type of dissociative disorder characterized by the appearance of multiple personalities in the same individual
Dissociative identity disorder
A type of somatoform disorder characterized by a change or a loss of physical function that cannot be explained by physical causes
Conversion disorder
A somatoform disorder in which there is excessive concerned that one’s physical complaints are signs of underlying serious illness
Hypochondriasis
The reward value of having a psychological or physical symptom, such as release from ordinary responsibilities
Secondary gain
A class of psychological disorders involving disturbances in mood states, such as major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder
Mood disorders
The most common type of depressive disorder, characterized by periods of downcast mood, feelings of worthlessness, and loss of interest in pleasurable activities
Major depression
A type of major depressive disorder that involves a recurring pattern of winter depressions followed by elevation of mood in spring & summer
Seasonal affective disorder
A type of psychological disorder characterized by mild, chronic depression
Dysthymic disorder
A type of mood disorder characterized by mood swings from extreme elation (mania) to severe depression
Bipolar disorder
Periods of mania, or unusual elevated mood & extreme restlessness
Manic episodes
A mood disorder characterized by a recurring pattern of relatively mild mood swings
Cyclothymic disorder
The view that depression results from the perception of a lack of control over the reinforcements in one’s life that may result from exposure to uncontrollable negative events
Learned helplessness model
A persons characteristic way of explaining outcomes of events in his or her life
Attributional style
A characteristic way of explaining negative events in terms of internal, stable, & global causes
Depressive attributional style
The removal of normal restraints or inhibitions that serve to keep impulsive behavior in check
Disinhibition effect
A severe and chronic psychological disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking, perception, emotions, & behavior
Schizophrenia
A psychological disorders such as schizophrenia characterized by a break with reality
Psychotic disorder
A breakdown in the logical structure of thought, and speech, revealed in the form of a loosening of associations
Thought disorder
Symptoms of schizophrenia involving behavioral excesses, such as hallucinations & delusions
Positive symptoms
Behavioral deficits associated with schizophrenia, such as withdrawal & apathy
Negative symptoms
A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by confused behavior and disorganized delusions, among other features
Disorganized type
A subtype of schizophrenia, characterized by bazaar movements, postures, or grimaces
Catatonic type
A feature of catatonic schizophrenia, in which people rigidly maintain the body position or posture in which they were placed by others
Waxy flexibility
The most common subtype of schizophrenia characterized by the appearances of delusional thinking accompanied by frequent auditory hallucinations
Paranoid type
A class of psychological disorders characterized by rigid personality traits that impair people’s ability to adjust to the demands they face in the environment & that interfere with their relationship with others
Personality disorders
A type of personality disorder characterized by a grandiose sense of self
Narcissistic personality disorder
A type of personality disorder characterized by extreme suspiciousness or mistrust of others
Paranoid personality disorder
A type of personality disorder characterized by social aloofness and limited range of emotional expression
Schizoid personality disorder
A type of personality disorder characterized by unstable emotions & self image
Borderline personality disorder
A type of personality disorder characterized by callous attitudes toward others and by antisocial & irresponsible behavior
Antisocial personality disorder
A philosophy of treatment that emphasizes treating mentally ill people with compassion and understanding, rather than shackling them in chains
Moral therapy
A policy of reducing the population of mental hospitals by shifting care from inpatient facilities to community-based outpatient facilities
Deinstitutionalization
A verbal form of therapy derived from a psychological framework that consist of one or more treatment sessions with a therapist
Psychotherapy
Freud’s method of psychoanalysis, which focuses on uncovering, and working through unconscious conflicts, believed to be at the root of a psychological problems
Psychoanalysis
Practitioners of psychoanalysis who are school in the Freudian tradition
Psychoanalysts
A technique in psychoanalysis in which the client is encouraged to say anything that comes to mind
Free association
A technique in psychoanalysis in which the therapist attempts to analyze the underlying or symbolic meaning of the clients dreams
Dream analysis
In psychoanalysis, the attempt by the therapist to explain the connections between the material the client discloses in therapy and his or her unconscious conflicts
Interpretation
In Freud’s theory, the awareness of underlying, unconscious wishes and conflicts
Insight
In psychoanalysis, the blocking that occurs when therapy touches upon anxiety-evoking thoughts or feelings
Resistance
In therapy, the tendency of clients to reenact earlier conflicted relationships in the relationship they develop with their therapists
Transference relationship
The tendency for therapists to relate to clients in ways that mirror their relationship with important figures in their own lives
Countertransference
A form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning
Behavior therapy
A behavior therapy technique for treating phobias, based on direct exposure to a series of increasingly fearful stimuli
Gradual exposure
In vivo exposure
A behavior therapy technique for treating phobias through the pairing of exposure in imagination to fear inducing stimuli and states of deep relaxation
Systematic desensitization
An ordered series of increasingly fearful objects or situations
Fear hierarchy
A behavior therapy technique for overcoming phobias and acquiring more adaptive behaviors, based on observing and imitating models
Modeling
A form of behavior therapy in which stimuli associated with undesirable behavior are paired with a version stimuli to create a negative response to the stimuli
Aversion conditioning
A form of therapy that combines behavioral and cognitive treatment techniques
Cognitive behavioral therapy
Developed by Albert Ellis, a form of therapy based on identifying incorrect in irrational beliefs that are believed to underlie emotional and behavioral difficulties
Rational emotive behavior therapy
The method of psychotherapy developed by Aaron Beck, that helps clients recognize and correct, distorted patterns of thinking believed to underlie their emotional problems
Cognitive therapy
A therapeutic approach that draws upon principles and techniques representing different schools of therapy
Eclectic therapy
A form of therapy in which clients are treated with a group format
Group Therapy
Therapy for troubled families that focuses on changing disruptive patterns of communication and improving the ways in which family members relate to each other
Family therapy
Therapy that focuses on helping distressed couples resolve the conflict and develop more effective communication skills
Couple therapy
A form of exposure therapy in which virtual reality is used to stimulate real world environments
Virtual reality therapy
A statistical technique for averaging results across a large number of studies
Meta-analysis
General features of psychotherapy, such as attention from a therapist and mobilization of positive expectancies or hope
Nonspecific factors
In psychotherapy, positive outcomes of a treatment resulting from hopeful expectations of clients rather than from the effects of the treatment itself
Placebo effect
Expectancy effect
Psychiatric drugs used in the treatment of psychological or mental disorders
Psychotropic drugs
Drugs that combat anxiety
Antianxiety anxiety
Drugs that combat depression by affecting the levels of activity of neurotransmitters in the brain
Antidepressants
A class of antidepressant drugs that increase the availability of neurotransmitters in the brain by interfering with the reuptake of these chemicals by transmitting neurons
Tricyclics
A class of antidepressant drugs that increase the availability of neurotransmitters in the brain by inhibiting an enzyme, monoamine oxidase, that breaks down, or degrades them in the synapse
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MOA)
A class of antidepressant drugs that works specifically on increasing availability of the neurotransmitter serotonin by interfering with its re-uptake
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI’s)
Drugs used in the treatment of psychotic disorders that help alleviate hallucinations and delusional thinking
Antipsychotics
A potentially disabling motor disorder that may occur following regular use of antipsychotic drugs
Tardive dyskinesia (TD)
A form of therapy for severe depression, that involves the administration of an electrical shock to the head
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Brain surgery used to control violent or deviant behavior
Psychosurgery
A surgical procedure in which neural pathways in the brain are severed in order to control violent or aggressive behavior
Prefrontal lobotomy
The subfield in psychology that deals with how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by our social interactions with others
Social psychology
The processes by which reform impressions, make judgments, and develop attitudes about the people and events that constitute our social world
Social perception
The process of developing an opinion or impression of another person
Impression formation
A mental image or representation that we used to understand our social environment
Social schema
Oversimplified generalizations about the characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors of members of a particular group or category
Stereotypes
An expectation that brings about the expected outcome
Self fulfilling prophecy
An assumption about the causes of behavior or events
Attribution
Causes relating to the internal characteristics or traits of individuals
Dispositional causes
Causes relating to external or environmental events
Situational causes
The tendency to attribute behavior to internal causes without regard to situational influences
Fundamental attribution error
The tendency to attribute the causes of one’s own behavior to situational factors without attribute in the causes of others people’s behavior to internal factors or dispositions
Actor-observer effect
The tendency to take credit for our accomplishments, and to explain away our failures or disappointments
Self-serving bias
A positive or negative evaluation of persons, object, or issues
Attitude
A theoretical model that posits 2 channels by which persuasive appeals lead to attitude change : a central route and a peripheral route
Elaborative likelihood model
Feelings of liking, for others, together with having positive thoughts about them and inclinations to act toward them, and positive ways
Attraction
The belief that people tend to pair off with others who are similar to themselves in physical attractiveness and other characteristics
Matching hypothesis
The principle that people tend to like others who like them back
Reciprocity
Behavior that benefits others
Prosocial behavior
Helping a stranger in distress
Bystander intervention
Standards that define what is socially acceptable in a given situation
Social norms
A preconceived opinion or attitude about an issue, person, or group
Prejudice
Unfair or biased treatment of people based on their membership in a particular group or category
Discrimination
A cognitive bias involving the predisposition to attribute more negative characteristics to members of out-groups than to those of in-groups
Out-group negativism
A cognitive bias involving the predispositions to attribute more positive characteristics to members of in-groups as more alike than those of out-groups
In-group favoritism
A cognitive bias, describing the tendency to perceive members of out-groups as more alike than members of in-groups
Out-group homogeneity
A personality type characterized by rigidity, prejudice, and excessive concerned with obedience and respect for authority
Authoritarian personality
Allport’s belief that under certain conditions increased intergroup contact helps reduce prejudice and intergroup tension
Contact hypothesis
Negative bias held toward others based on their ethnicity or race your identification
Racism
A sense of threat evoked and people from stereotyped groups when they believe they may be judged or treated stereotypically
Stereotype threat
In the part of our a psychological identity that involves our sense of ourselves as unique individual’s
Personal identity
The part of our psychological identity that involves our sense of ourselves as members of particular groups
Social identity
Group identity
The tendency to adjust one’s behavior to actual or perceived social pressures
Conformity
The process of acceding to the requests or demands of others
Compliance
The tendency to use other peoples behavior as a standard for judging the appropriateness of one’s own behavior
Social validation
A compliance technique based on secure in compliance with a smaller request as a prelude to making a larger request
Foot in the door technique
A compliance technique based on “ baiting” an individual by making an unrealistically attractive offer and then replacing it with a less, attractive offer
Bait and switch technique
A compliance technique based on obtaining a persons initial agreement to purchase an item at a lower price before revealing hidden costs that raise the ultimate price
Low-ball technique
A compliance technique in which refusal of a larger unreasonable request is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request
Door in the face technique
Compliance with commands or orders issued by others, usually persons in a position of authority
Obedience
The tendency to grant legitimacy to the orders or commands of persons in authority
Legitimization of authority
The tendency to use other peoples behavior as a standard, for judging the appropriateness of one’s own behavior
Social validation
The tendency to work better or harder in the presence of others than when alone
Social facilitation
The tendency to expand less effort when working as a member of a group than when working alone
Social loafing
The loss of self awareness that may occur in one acts in concert with the actions of a crowd
Deindividuation
The tendency for members of decision-making groups to shift toward more extreme views in whatever direction they are initially leaning
Group polarization
A type of group polarization affect in which group discussion leads to the adoption of a riskier course of action than the members would have endorsed initially
Risky shift phenomenon
Janis’s term for the tendency of members of a decision, making group to be more focused on reaching a consensus, then on critically examining the issues at hand
Groupthink
Level of contentment or positive feelings for one’s job or work
Job satisfaction
A form of working at home in which people communicate with their home office and clients via computer or telecommunications
Telecommuting
The system of shared values and norms within an organization
Organizational culture
