Psychology

Question 1

SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939)

Answer 1

one of the earliest theorist to examine and describe the human mind

Freud was the first to label what he considered the hidden area of the mind, the unconscious.
-the area was believed to contain thoughts, emotions, and memories of which people are largely unaware

In psychoanalytic therapy, he used techniques he named free association of ideas to allow patients to recognize and recall unconscious memories and deal with them in the conscious mind.

Freud’s work referred to as psychoanalysis, is based on his belief that psychological problems are the result of repressed impulses and conflicts stemming from childhood.

The goal of psychoanalysis is to bring these issues into conscious awareness so patients can deal with them in the present.

Freud also viewed the structure of the human mind as containing distinct parts that shaped personality, thus the behavior of all beings.
—— id, ego & superego the areas of the mind the govern unique processes.

    - ego --> is the conscious state that directs the personality and works to deal with the state of reality  
     - id --> contains the unconscious memories and impulses, that Freud believed were based on sexual and aggressive drives; the id drives the personality to seek pleasure and instant gratification of unconscious desires. 
     - superego -->  represents the judgement center of the mind where internalized ideals and values are held

Problems in human behavior and psychological pain occurred as a result of the struggle and interplay of the id, ego, and superego.

Goal of therapy was to bring repressed memories/information to the conscious mind and allow patient to handle the conflict.

Freud believed that personality development occurred during the early years of a child’s life. Later problems rooted in unresolved conflicts from childhood.
- he viewed development as psychosexual in nature.
- during these stages the id sought pleasure through stimulation of erogenous zones of the body.
+ first the infant experienced the oral stage where pleasure was sought through sucking, chewing, and biting.
+ next from age 18 months - 3, the child experienced the anal stage when control over bowel and bladder elimination dominated the id.
+ during the phallic stage, from about 3 to 6 years of age, the id focused on the genital area of the body, and the child developed sexual desires – it was during this stage that Freud believed that boys went though a Oedipal complex of loving their mothers and desiring them sexually, while feeling threatened by and fearful of their fathers.

Freud felt that eventually children repress these feelings and learn to cope with them by a process of identification with the sex parents and the valued held the superego.

Though much of Freud’s work has been dismissed by modern psychologists, his fundamental contributions to the field remain intact.

Question 2

JEAN PIAGET (1896-1980)

Answer 2

studied the basis for learning and development of the mind.

He is considered the founder of cognitive psychology.

Cognitive psychology is the study of the thinking, logical reasoning, and the ability of the human mind to understand abstract and symbolic ideas.

Piaget studied the development of children and their progressive stages of motor development – believed that motor activity stimulated mental development — for example, an infant beginning to experience her environment may shake a rattle, which produces a noise. Overtime, the infant will learns that this motor activity produces a sound.

Piaget theorized that cognitive development is based on the child’s interaction with her environment

Question 3

Piaget’s Development Learning Stages

Sensorimotor

Answer 3

Age group : birth to 2 years

Description : children learn about the world through their senses and motor skills

Question 4

Preoperational

Answer 4

Age group : 2 - 6 years
Description : children begin to think symbolically and form language skills; they pretend and fantasize during play; thinking is self-centered

Question 5

Piaget’s Development Learning Stages

Concrete operations

Answer 5

Age group : 7 - 11 years

Description : children perceive differences and begin to reason ; they can classify and attend to multiple situations

Question 6

Piaget’s Development Learning Stages

Formal operations

Answer 6

Age group : 12 - adulthood
Description : children and adults can grasp concepts, more formal notion of time, and long-term goal setting develops; learning takes place by relating new material to past material

Question 7

ERIK ERIKSON ( 1902 - 1994 )

Answer 7

based his theories in psychology on social development across human lifespan.

His work was conducted in the late 1960s, and it has formed the basis for the field of developmental psychology. – believed that people in each state of life faced age-specific, competing psychosocial tasks that manifest as crises that had to be resolved before the person could move successfully into the next stage of psychological development.

According to Erickson, there are 8 stages of development. – he believed that resolution of the crises in each stage led to the formation of an individual’s identity as a person.

Question 8

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

Infancy up to a year

Answer 8

Developmental issue : trust vs. mistrust

Task associated : if basic needs are met, the child learns to trust

Question 9

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

Toddler 1-2 years

Answer 9

Developmental issue : autonomy vs. shame and doubt

Task associated : child learns to exercise free will and accomplish tasks or doubt his abilities

Question 10

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

Preschool 3- 5 years :

Answer 10

Developmental issues : intuitive vs. guilt

Task associated : child gains initiate activities and plans or feels guilty about his inabilities

Question 11

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

Elementary school ( 6 years up to puberty )

Answer 11

Developmental issue : competence vs. inferiority

Tasks associated : child gains pleasure from accomplishments or he feels inferior

Question 12

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

Adolescence ( teens into 20s )

Answer 12

Developmental issue : identity vs. role confusion
Task associated : teens refine their identities and try different roles or they lose their sense of who they are and what they will become

Question 13

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

Young adults ( 20s to 40s )

Answer 13

Developmental issue : intimacy vs. isolation

Task associated : young adults seek to develop close and intimate social relationships or remain socially isolated

Question 14

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

Middle-aged ( 40s to 60s )

Answer 14

Developmental issues : generativity vs. stagnation
Task associated : adults develop a sense of well-being through contributions to work and family or they feel a lack of purpose

Question 15

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

Later adults ( 60s and beyond )

Answer 15

Developmental issue : integrity vs. despair

Task associated : in reflecting on their lives, seniors sense satisfaction or failure

Question 16

ABRAHAM MASLOW ( 1908 - 1970 )

Answer 16

is considered the founder of humanist psychology. Maslow followed Freud’s psychoanalytic model and viewed his work as an extension rather than a replacement for other theory — known best for his hierarchy of needs.

Maslow believed that human behavior was motivated by a series of hierarchical needs ranging from basic physiological survival to self-actualization

Believed that having basic survival and physiologic needs unmet prevented individuals from addressing safety needs and issues – in turn safety needs for security, stability, and protection must be met before people can deal with love and belonging needs in social relationships. – once social relationship needs are met , the person can focus on developing self-esteem through achievements and accomplishments. –once all the levels of need are met, the individual seeks self-actualization, which is attainment of peak performance living. This person has met and accomplished what he is best suited for in life, and is reaping the rewards of living.

Maslow recognized that life circumstances create situations that move people between stages.

Question 17

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs :

Answer 17

1. Physiological Needs
2. Safety and Security
3. Love and Belonging
4. Self-esteem
5. Self-actualization

Question 18

LAWRENCE KOHLBERG ( 1927 - 1987 )

Answer 18

a developmental psychologist, studied the field of moral development beginning in the 1970s.

Kohlberg believed that moral development and ethical behavior, like cognitive development, depended on the age and problem-solving ability of the individual.

His work built on Piaget and other developmental psychologists– according to Kohlberg children and adults move through 3 major stages of developing a sense of justice and moral beliefs.

These beliefs formed the basis for ethical behaviors – the first stage of moral development is termed preconditional : in this stage young children learn to behave based on rewards and punishments– essentially they learn that by doing what is “good” they will avoid punishments and gain rewards from their parents and other adults. The next stage of moral development is conventional level. : at this stage, right and wrong is determined by others and is approved behavior. — later in this stage law and order and fixed rules and regulations are recognized.

Moral behavior consists of following the rules of society : authority or religion — the highest stage of moral development is postconventional/principled level – in this stage rights are part of greater social contract, such as the U.S constitution – at this level individuals hold universal good and ethical principles.

Kohlberg believed that individual moral development depended on a person’s cognitive or thinking capacity and exposure to different ideas and human experiences.

He felt that many adults never reach the state of altruism that represents the highest stage of moral development– instead they obey laws and do what is deemed right in the eyes of society.

Question 19

ELISABETH KUBLER-ROSS ( 1926 - 2004 )

Answer 19

famous for her work with patients who were experiencing death and grieving during the final stages of life.

Through her observations and and interviews with patients, she identified five stages that are typically observed by individuals going through the dying experience – the stages are : denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

In her work with terminally ill patients - she noted newly diagnosed patients frequently face shock and disbelief in dealing with the information — may often feel invincible even in the face of major signs and symptoms : during this stage patients reject treatment or seek multiple providers to avoid facing their disease.

Once they move through their denial - many become angry - it is typical for patients that despite following prescribed treatments, healthy-life style or other actions, they are the victims of illness – the outward anger may be directed health care providers, family members, or other deemed responsible

The next stage is bargaining – in this stage people may bargain with “if-then” thinking – for example if i pray and attend church regularly then God will safe me

Once bargaining has been completed it is common for depression to set in : facing multiple losses of family, friends, functional status, appearance, and often livelihood may lead to sadness and isolation.

The final stage of grieving is acceptance : in this stage people facing terminal illness come to terms with this reality – they say their goodbyes and may develop an appreciation for what they are leaving behind. Often patients in this stage will seek to leave a legacy in writing or in pictures for their loved ones – they begin to assist in planning for their own funerals and actively put their affairs in order.

Kubler-Ross noted that not every patient or family member experienced each of the five stages – patients also may move back and fourth in the stages.

She was one of the first scientists to explore not only the stages of the grieving process, but the lack of understanding and appreciation by the majority of the health care professionals for these experiences.

Question 20

DEFENSE MECHANISMS AND COMMUNICATION

Answer 20

People often have emotional reactions to their experiences.

When events arouse difficult feelings in a patient – such as guilt, fear, or shame, among others – he or she may react defensively — defense mechanisms are a person’s conscious or unconscious effort to protect the ego and self-esteem ; can create a barrier to communication

Defense mechanisms that last for excessive periods of time , or that do not resolve, can raise mental health concerns.

Important to recognize defense mechanisms and navigate it by incorporating therapeutic communication into daily activities

Question 21

Common Defense Mechanisms :

Answer 21

Denial : refusal to accept something that may be painful, and it often follows a traumatic event such as death in family or a diagnosis of cancer – a patient in denial will not be able to focus on the news you are conveying

Regression : is a mean of retreating from unpleasant situations – the regressive patient may retreat to a happier, more secure time in their life ; an example of this is a child who has been toilet trained but begins bed-wetting again when a new sibling is born.

Rationalization : is labeling as acceptable a behavior that may not be healthy ; the individual is making excuses – rationalization is the mind’s way of avoiding guilt or embarrassment ; an example a driver may rationalize that it is acceptable not to wear a seatbelt because he travels only a few miles to work.

Undoing : is meant to make amends for unacceptable behavior – an abusive spouse might shower excessive gifts upon the victim in a bid to “undo” or negate the abuse.

Sublimation : is a means of channeling something socially unacceptable into an acceptable form – it would not be acceptable to be aggressive towards your medical provider, for example, but someone who has aggressive tendencies might exhibit those behaviors through a sport such as football .

Projection : is blaming others or attributing one’s own thoughts to others in order to avoid accepting accountability – a parent who abuses her child may lash out at a provider for being too rough during a pediatric exam preparation

Compensation : a person substitutes a strength for a weakness to avoid embarrassment or acknowledgment for deficiencies – an oversized child who is not very intelligent might use his size to compensate, by exhibiting some power over other children.