Body Systems Flashcards
1
Q
INTEGUMENTARY
A
- provision of a protective barrier from foreign invaders
- regulation of body temperature
- reception of information through pressure receptors
- linings for body cavities and organs
2
Q
Skin Exam Signs & Symptoms
blue: cyanosis
A
lack of oxygen or profusion of cells
3
Q
Skin Exam Signs & Symptoms
red: erythema
A
fever, burn, blush or infection
4
Q
Skin Exam Signs & Symptoms
white: pale
A
anemia
5
Q
Skin Exam Signs & Symptoms
orange: cirrhosis
A
liver or pancreatic disorder
6
Q
Skin Exam Signs & Symptoms
gray: ashen
A
serious illness, death
7
Q
Skin Exam Signs & Symptoms
brown-orange : bronze
A
adrenal problems
8
Q
purple : ecchymosis
A
bruising or deep tissue injury
9
Q
Skin Exam Signs & Symptoms
yellow: jaundice
A
bile problems involving liver, gallbladder or pancreas
10
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
papule
A
small elevation
ex: wart
11
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
macule
A
flat
ex: freckle
12
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
vesicle
A
papule with clear fluid
ex: blister; chicken pox
13
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
pustule
A
papule with pus
ex: pimple, boil
14
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
nevus
A
brown elevation
ex: mole
15
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
nodule
A
lump under skin
ex: sebaceous cyst
16
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
decubitus
A
ulceration
ex: pressure sore
17
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
avulsion
A
tissue torn out
ex: dog bite
18
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
excoriation
A
tissue rubbed off
ex: road burn, scrape, rubbing of two skin surfaces
19
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
laceration
A
cut with clean edges
ex: knife cut
20
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
fissure
A
torn by use at a site of pressure
ex: rectal fissure
21
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
tear
A
ragged edges
ex: skin shearing from friction
22
Q
Common Skin Blemishes
puncture
A
small surface area but deep wound
ex: stab wound
23
Q
Skin Diseases
dermatitis
A
inflamed, irritated skin
24
Q
Skin Diseases
eczema
A
erythema, scaling, and itching due to allergic reaction
25
# Skin Diseases
psoriasis
overgrowth of epidermis resulting in silvery scales
26
# Skin Diseases
verruca (wart)
benign, fleshy tumor caused by virus
27
# Skin Diseases
herpes simplex
viral lesions with water vesicles;
type 1 : mouth and nose
type 2 : genitalia
28
# Skin Diseases
tinea pedis (athletes foot)
fungus flourishes in warm, moist, dark places; causing scaling, itching and burning to feet and in between toes
29
tinea cruritis (jock itch)
fungus that flourishes in groin and other skin folds; causes burning and redness
30
# Skin Diseases
tinea corporis (ringworm)
red lesion in a circular pattern blanched in the center caused by fungus, not a worm
31
# Skin Diseases
impetigo
golden crust on oozing lesions, bacterial, spread through direct contact or with personal items like towels or bed clothing
32
# Skin Diseases
furuncle (boil)
staph infection in hairy area of body such as groin, neck, or armpit; common in diabetics or those with impaired immunity; needs systemic antibiotic
33
# Skin Diseases
carbuncle
group of furuncles
34
# Skin Diseases
basal cell carcinoma
shiny pearl-like lesion due to overexposure to sun
35
# Skin Diseases
squamous cell carcinoma
reddened patch of skin that will not heal due to overexposure to sun
36
# Skin Diseases
cellulitis
common bacterial infection that causes redness, swelling and pain in infected area of skin
37
# Skin Diseases
melanoma
large, asymmetrical, dark, malignant mole that swiftly spreads through body, can be terminal
38
# Skin Diseases
burns
1st degree: redness such as sunburn
2nd degree: blisters and redness
3rd degree: full thickness damage through skin into nerves and muscles
39
MUSCULOSKELETAL
provide support and enable movement of the body
40
BONES
function as levers for doing work
serve as a storehouse for calcium
the site for manufacturing of red blood cells
protection of soft organs (rib cage/cranium)
41
BONES
made of two types of material:
- cancellous or spongy bone is a lighter-weight bone composed of meshwork filled with red marrow; often found at the end (epiphysis) of long bones
- compact bone filled with yellow bone marrow; often found in the shaft (diaphysis) of the long bone
- entire bone is covered in -periosteum- a thick protective covering
- Nerves and blood vessels weave into the diaphysis through foramen (holes) and run along fossa (grooves)
42
# Bones
cranium
skull
43
# Bones
mandible
jaw
44
# Bones
clavicle
shoulder
45
# Bones
sternum
center bone of rib cage
46
# Bones
humerus
proximal arm bone
47
# Bones
radius
lateral bone of forearm (thumb)
48
# Bones
ulna
medial bone of forearm (pinky)
49
# Bones
carpals
connect the distal parts of the ulna and radius to the bases of 5 metacarpal bones
50
# Bones
rib case
enclosure that comprises the ribs
51
# Bones
vertebral column
bone cavity to protect spinal cord
52
# Bones
ilium
pelvis
53
# Bones
radius
54
# Bones
metacarpals
form the intermediate part of the hand between the phalanges and the carpals of the wrist; forms the connection to the forearm
55
# Bones
phalanges
bones that make up the fingers of the hand and the toes of the foot
56
# Bones
femur
thigh bone
57
# Bones
patella
knee cap
58
# Bones
fibula
calf bone
59
# Bones
tibia
the shinbone, largest of the two bones in the lower leg
60
# Bones
tarsals
cluster of 7 articulating bones in each foot between the end of the tibia and fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus
61
# Bones
metatarsals
the bones of the forefoot that connect the distal aspects of the cuneiform (medial, intermediate and lateral) bones and cuboid bone to the base of the five phalanges of the foot.
62
skeletal system
axial skeleton - skull, spinal column, shoulders, and hips (axis of the skeleton)
appendicular skeleton - arms and legs (appendages) hang off axial skeleton
Skeletal muscles are attached to the appendicular skeleton by tendons (overuse and abuse of these muscles can cause tendonitis)
Bones are joined together with ligaments at joints (injuries to ligaments and tendons (strains/sprains) are very painful and slow to heal)
63
# Fractures
open/compound
breaks through the skin, will be high risk of osteomyelitis, a severe bone infection.
64
# Fractures
closed/simple
bone broken but does not break skin
65
# Fractures
greenstick
splinters, bends, or cracks
66
# Fractures
impacted/compacted
one piece of bone jammed into another
67
# Fractures
spiral
bone twisted with a torturous break
68
# Fractures
comminuted
bone breaks into multiple pieces
69
# Fractures
pathological
caused by disease process
70
MUSCLES
there are 650 muscles in the body that make up approximately 40% body weight
- require glucose and oxygen to make energy (ATP) for movement
- glucose stored as glycogen
- oxygen stored as myoglobin
- skeletal muscle is a striated muscle (banded) tissue composed of two proteins
- actin : light and thin
- myosin: dark and heavy
- In the presence of CALCIUM, sticky points of the ACTIN are uncovered and oar-like attachments from the MYOSIN are drawn to the points with the assistance of ATP, causing the muscle to CONTRACT
- we need muscles to move and maintain body temperature
71
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
osteoporosis
decreased bone mass that often occurs in middle-aged women
treatment: hormone replacement therapy, increased calcium, weight-bearing exercise, weight loss
72
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
scoliosis
deviation of spine to side
treatment: brace; surgery
73
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
lordosis
excessive curvature of lumbar spine (swayback)
treatment: surgery
74
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
kyphosis
excessive curvature of thoracic spine (hunchback)
treatment: bracing
75
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
osteoarthritis
wear and tear on joints causing pain, stiffness, swelling
treatment: medical treatment with anti-inflammatory drugs, assistive devices, exercise, joint replacement
76
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
rheumatoid arthritis
stiffness, swelling, and pain in joint due to autoimmune disorder
treatment: medical treatment and drug therapy, acupuncture
77
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
bursitis
swelling of the fluid sac cushioning joint
treatment: avoiding pressure on joints, medication, aspiration
78
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
gout
collection of uric acid crystals in joint causing pain and swelling
treatment: low-purine diet, allopurinol
79
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
muscular dystrophy
hereditary; poorly developed muscles
treatment: physical therapy; braces
80
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
torticollis (wry neck)
spasm of the sternocleidomastoid muscle
treatment: heat, antispasmodic drugs, physical therapy
81
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
atrophy
wasting of muscle
treatment: exercise or range of motion exercise
82
# Musculoskeletal System Diseases
cleft palate
congenital deformity in roof of mouth due to failure of maxillary bone to fuse
treatment: surgery
83
NERVOUS SYSTEM
divided into two systems
- PERIPHERAL : consists of the nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord - forms the communication network between the CNS and the body parts - picks up information from the environment and causes a response
1. input from environment travels via the nervous tissue to the spinal cord and on to the brain.
2. an action potential is sent back via spinal cord to nerves that trigger the muscle to move.
At times this path is altered : information that is needed quickly may be processed in the spinal cord what is called : a reflux arc
Nerve impulses are passed from one neuron to another
dendrites : pick up the impulses and pass through the cell body ( soma ) and out the tail of the neuron ( axon )
Neurons do not touch one another: the impulse must cross the synapse ( the junction between neurons ) via neurotransmitters.
- impulses pass more rapidly as learning takes place
IF the impulse cannot quickly pass along the axon because the coating on the axon is patchy, the patient would be diagnosed with multiple sclerosis
- CENTRAL: brain and spinal spinal cord - divided into voluntary system and autonomic (involuntary) system
autonomic nervous system provides rapid response to a threat where we may need to run or defend ourselves : made up of parasympathetic and sympathetic
Sympathetic nervous system : responsible for release of glucose from the liver, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, increased respiration, and decreased genitourinary action (fight or flight)
Parasympathetic nervous system : creates reverse responses to help slow the body down (rest and digest)
84
BRAIN
the command center of the body --> receives information from the world, processes it, and sends out a response.
two hemispheres of convoluted tissue
Right hemisphere : controls the left side of the body
Left hemisphere : controls the right side of the body
hemispheres are joined together by tissue called : corpus callosum
Four main parts of the brain : the cerebellum , cerebrum, brainstem, and diencephalon
cerebrum : primarily for thinking and emotion
cerebellum : balance and movement
brainstem : made up of pons and medulla oblongata - responsible for basic life functions such as heartbeat , respiration, and blood pressure
diencephalon : contains structures responsible for alertness ( reticular formation ), body temperature ( hypothalamus ), long-term memory ( hippocampus ), and survival/animal brain ( limbic system )
both the right and left side can be broken down into frontal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe and parietal lobe
85
# Lobes of Brain
frontal
emotions and personality
86
# Lobes of Brain
parietal
math and logic
87
# Lobes of Brain
temporal
processing spoken word
88
# Lobes of Brain
occipital
processing visual information
89
# Nervous System Diseases
meningitis
inflammation of the meninges, membranes covering brain and spinal cord
Symptoms: nuchal rigidity (stiff neck) , fever, headache, vomiting
90
# Nervous System Diseases
hemiplegia
result of stroke
Symptoms: paralysis to one side of body
91
# Nervous System Diseases
paraplegia
result of severing of spinal cord in lower back or sacrum
Symptoms: inability to move legs, may have bowel and bladder dysfunction
92
# Nervous System Diseases
quadriplegia
result of severing of spinal cord in the upper thoracic or cervical area
Symptoms: inability to move arms and legs, may have respiratory dysfunction
93
# Nervous System Diseases
encephalitis
inflammation of the brain
Symptoms: headache, fever, confusion
94
# Nervous System Diseases
cerebral vascular accident (stroke)
blockage of a vessel or bleeding into brain prevents oxygen getting to brain tissue
Symptoms: malfunction in the portion of the brain that is deprived of circulation ( slurred speech, paralysis, drooped facial muscles )
95
# Nervous System Diseases
herniated disc
protrusion of nucleus pulpous against the spinal cord
Symptoms: pain that radiated down leg
96
# Nervous System Diseases
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
deterioration of motor neurons
97
# Nervous System Diseases
poliomyelitis
viral infection that leads to weakened muscles
98
# Nervous System Diseases
transient ischemic attack
brief interludes of confusion that often precede CVA
99
# Nervous System Diseases
hydrocephalus
enlargement of head due to accumulated fluid in the ventricles of the brain
100
# Nervous System Diseases
expressive aphasia
inability to form words
101
# Nervous System Diseases
receptive aphasia
inability to understand what is being said
102
# Nervous System Diseases
epilepsy
abnormal electrical activity of the brain
103
# Nervous System Diseases
cerebral palsy
damage to the brain that causes motor or balance problems
104
# Nervous System Diseases
intracerebral hematoma
accumulation of blood within the brain tissue due to trauma to head or spontaneous rupture of blood vessel
105
# Nervous System Diseases
subdural hematoma
accumulation of blood due to tear in meningeal layer
106
# Nervous System Diseases
concussion
headache, vomiting, damage to brain tissue due to closed head trauma
107
# Nervous System Diseases
alzheimer's disease
progressive degeneration thought to be due to plaque and tangles of brain tissue leading to regression of ability to think
108
# Nervous System Diseases
parkinson's disease
progressive neurological disease with resulting tremors, shuffling gait and rigidity
109
# Nervous System Diseases
multi-infarct dementia
brain damage from chronic ischemia
110
# Nervous System Diseases
bell's palsy
temporary facial paralysis caused by virus damaging vii cranial nerve (facial)
111
# Nervous System Diseases
trigeminal neuralgia
severe spasm of V cranial nerve (trigeminal)
112
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
olfactory
```
name: I
function : carries impulses for smell
```
113
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
optic
```
name : II
function : carries impulses for sight
```
114
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
oculomotor
```
name : III
function : controls eye movement
```
115
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
trochlear
```
name : IV
function : controls eye movement
```
116
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
trigeminal
```
name : V
function : carries sensation from eye, upper and lower jaw; movement of of jaw
```
117
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
abducens
name : VI
| functions : controls facial expressions, controls salivary and tear glands, carries taste
118
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
facial
```
name : VII
function : carries taste, controls facial expression
```
119
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
vestibulocochlear
```
name : VIII
function : carries hearing and controls equilibrium
```
120
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
glossopharyngeal
```
name : IX
function : carries taste, controls swallowing and gag
```
121
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
vagus
```
name : X
function : controls voice box, throat, and digestive juices ; longest nerve; goes to abdominal cavity
```
122
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
spinal accessory
```
name : XI
function : controls muscles in neck and larynx
```
123
# Cranial Nerves and Functions
hypoglossal
```
name : XII
function : controls muscles of tongue
```
124
EYES
an orb covered in tough white tissue (sclera)
front of orb, a clear window in the sclera allows light to enter eye (cornea)
passes through cornea and through a lens, which focuses light on fovea centralis
rods : are specialized receptors that are sensitive to night, shades of gray and peripheral vision
cones : are specialized receptors that are stimulated by color and daylight
- simulation from these receptors in the retina is carried by the optic nerve to the brain
pupils : react to light (PERRLA--> notion made when pupils of the eye are equal in size, round, and either eye responds to a light being shined in it by contracting and the other pupil responds likewise)
iris : dilates or constricts the pupil in response to light
125
# Eye Diseases
myopia
nearsighted; cannot see objects in distance
126
# Eye Diseases
hyperopia
farsighted; cannot see up close
127
# Eye Diseases
presbyopia
"old eye", lens loses elasticity
128
# Eye Diseases
astigmatism
irregular curvature of lens
129
# Eye Diseases
cataracts
cloudy lens
130
# Eye Diseases
conjunctivitis
redness and itching of conjunctiva; "pink eye"
131
# Eye Diseases
glaucoma
accumulation of fluid pressure and poor drainage of aqueous humor
132
# Eye Diseases
macular degeneration
abnormal blood vessel growth causing loss of central vision
133
# Eye Diseases
strabismus
"crosses eyes", unable to focus independently of one another
134
# Eye Diseases
nystagmus
repetitive and involuntary movement of eye
135
# Eye Diseases
blepharitis
eyelid and eyelash infection
136
# Eye Diseases
diplopia
double vision
137
# Eye Diseases
ambylopia
lazy eye causing other eye to lose some portion of vision
138
# Eye Diseases
chalazion
small, painless, localized swelling of eyelid
139
# Eye Diseases
hordeolum
purulent staph infection of hair follicle of eyelid
140
# Eye Diseases
enucleation
removal of eye
141
# Eye Diseases
keratitis
inflammation of cornea
142
# Eye Diseases
nyctalopia
inability to see at night
143
# Eye Diseases
pterygium
triangular thickening of conjuctiva
144
EAR
```
hearing is the result of sound in the form of vibration of air
the pinna (outer ear) catches sound waves and directs them down the ear canal towards the tympanic membrane (ear drum)
vibration is then passed on to the three bones of the ossicles (middle ear), the incus (anvil), malleus (hammer), and stapes (stirrup) pass vibration onto inner ear --> within the cochlea, small receptors called organ of corti are stimulated by the disturbance of vibration. the cochlear nerve is triggered to send an impulse to the brain to be interpreted as sound
```
conduction deafness : hearing can be interrupted by obstructions such as earwax or defective parts such as otosclerosis --> b/c of interference with the passage of sound waves or vibrations
sensineural deafness : in ability to hear caused by cochlear nerve or failure of brain to properly interpret sound
145
# Ear Diseases
otitis media
middle ear infection, often caused by URI
146
# Ear Diseases
otitis externa
outer ear infection, "swimmers ear", caused by exposure to pathogens
147
# Ear Diseases
impacted cerumen
buildup of earwax until auditory canal is occluded
148
# Ear Diseases
otosclerosis
buildup of spongy bone and stiffening of stapes
149
# Ear Diseases
presbycusis
decrease in hearing receptors due to aging or abuse
150
# Ear Diseases
meniere's
vertigo, dizziness, and hearing loss related to inner ear
151
# Ear Diseases
tinnitus
buzzing or ringing in ear/ears
152
HEART AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
the "highway system" of the body : made up of arteries, capillaries, and veins, collectively called vessels
hormones, nutrients and oxygen are three major products that must be circulated throughout the body and be delivered to various distant sites (circulatory system)
Arteries : thick and elastic; carry blood AWAY from heart are buried deep in the body's tissue
Veins : fragile; RETURN blood to the heart are superficially located --> veins can suffer engorgement
and fill with blood if blood flow in the venous system slows (varicose veins or hemorrhoids)
Veins and Arteries join together at capillaries, one cell thick, in the capillary beds perfusion (passage of fluid to organs) takes place.
Oxygen, nutrients and hormones move into surrounding tissue and carbon dioxide and other waste is picked up and carried away --> principle of osmosis - substances move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
153
HEART
the contractions of a double pump, pump blood through the circulatory system
atria (left & right ) : upper chambers of the heart
ventricles ( left & right ) : lower chambers of the heart
DEOXYGENATED blood is returned to the RIGHT side of the heart by the two largest veins of the body: the inferior/ superior vena cava.
the deoxygenated blood that collects in the RIGHT ATRIUM travels through the TRICUSPID valve and fills the RIGHT VENTRICLE.
valves keep the blood from flowing backwards
the blood then goes through the PULMONARY VALVE and out the PULMONARY ARTERY to the lungs. Oxygen is picked up in the lungs in the alveoli, where the walls of the capillaries are one cell thick.
The blood then carries the oxygen back to the heart through the PULMONARY VEIN and into the LEFT ATRIUM, after going through the BICUSPID VALVE the blood fills the LEFT VENTRICLE. The MYOCARDIUM (heart muscle) is the THICKEST around the LEFT VENTRICLE because it must push the OXYGENATED blood around the entire body. The blood is FINALLY pushed through the AORTIC VALVE and out the AORTA toward all portions of the body.
Atrial branches from the aorta take blood to the head (carotid artery) , arms ( subclavian artery ) and heart ( coronary artery ).
The blood from the coronary artery supplies needed blood to the heart muscle so it can contract 60 to 100 times per minute. Exercise, fever, and stress can increase heart rate.
154
electroconductivity of the heart
the contracts of the heart are triggered by electrical simulation in the heart muscle.
The electrical impulses begin in the sinoatrial node ( SA node ) or pacemaker
The impulse spreads out through the heart and is slowed down in the atrioventricular node (AV node).
The Bundle of His separates the impulse so it can travel down the septum of the heart via right or left bundle branches.
Finally, the Purkinje fibers carry the impulse into the myocardium where it cause the myocardium to contract --> simulation for the ventricles to contract
155
Atrial Depolarization/ Ventricular Repolarization
ECG -->
P wave : atrial depolarization ( atria contract )
QRS complex : ventricular depolarization ( ventricle contracts, hiding atrial relaxation )
T wave : ventricular repolarization ( ventricles relax)
156
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
myocardial infarction (heart attack)
ischemia (lack of blood) to area of heart causes tissue death
treatment: bypass graft around blockage or angioplasty with stent to keep coronary arteries open
157
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
coronary artery disease
multiple areas with start of vessel disease (narrowing and strictures)
158
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
angina
ischemia during stress or exercise, unstable angina during rest
treatment : nitroglycerin, stop activity, stop smoking
159
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
arrhythmia
irregular heartbeat
| treatment: medication, surgery, pacemaker, cardioversion
160
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
hypercholesterolemia
total cholesterol greater than 200 mg
| treatment : diet and medication
161
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
hypertension
blood pressure elevated greater than 140/90 \
| treatment : DASH diet, exercise, diet, medication, weight loss, stress reduction
162
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
peripheral vascular disease
narrowing or occlusion of vessels in legs and feet
| treatment : bypass graft or medication
163
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
thrombus
blood clot
| treatment : prevent clot from moving until dissolved
164
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
thrombophlebitis
blood clot and inflammation of veins
| treatment : heparin, antibiotics, blood thinners, exercise, avoid immobility or construction of veins
165
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
arteriosclerosis
calcium and fibrous deposits inside vessels
| treatment : aspirin or blood thinners ; surgery
166
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
atherosclerosis
fatty deposits inside vessels
| treatment : change to low-fat, high fiber diet and increase exercise
167
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
murmurs
valvular disorder
| treatment : valvular replacement in serious cases
168
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
congestive heart failure
```
weak ventricle (either side); allows blood to back up; left side = SOB, frothy sputum, coughing;
right side = edema and cyanosis
treatment : medication (lasix and lanoxin)
```
169
# Cardiac Diseases and Disorders
aneurysm
bulging wear spot in vessel
| treatment : graft inserted into area and sutured above and below weak point
170
BLOOD
composed of 55 % plasma (liquid) 45 % elements (corpuscles)
Plasma is made of 90 % water, protein ; such as hormones, antibodies, and clotting factors and nutrients ; such as fats, glucose, vitamins and minerals
Formed elements are ; red blood cells ( erythrocytes ), white blood cells ( leukocytes ), or platelets ( thrombocytes ).
Erythrocytes : disc- like without a nucleus; carry oxygen as well as blood type protein --> able to look for sugar residue in diabetic patients
Leukocytes : function to fight invaders and protect against infection. Identified through staining as granulocytes or agranulocytes --> by staining the granulocytes can identify white blood cell as neutrophil, eosinophil, or basophil --> each can be prolific under certain circumstances, such as allergy or parasitic infestation
Thrombocytes : part of clotting process. they have no nucleus, part of chain to prevent blood loss when vessel is injured.
Hemostasis begins with the release of thromboplastin by the injured tissue, followed by conversion to prothrombin and thrombin.
In the presence of calcium, thrombin converts to insoluble fibrin and eventually into a clot
171
# Blood Disorders
thrombocytopenia
decreased number of platelets
| symptoms : bruising, easy bleeding
172
# Blood Disorders
leukemia
unrestrained growth in white blood cells
| symptoms : pale, weak, low-grade fever, malaise, weight loss
173
# Blood Disorders
anemia
not enough red blood cells
| symptoms : shortness of breath, fatigue, weakness, pale
174
# Blood Disorders
iron deficiency anemia
not enough heme for oxygen to bind to on red blood cells
| symptoms : shortness of breath, fatigue, weakness, pale
175
# Blood Disorders
pernicious anemia
lack of intrinsic factor in gastric juice
| symptoms : mental changes, weak, stiff extremities
176
# Blood Disorders
sick-cell anemia
abnormal hemoglobin; red blood cell changes into sickle shape and gets tangled up, causing blockage and pain
symptoms : pain and swelling in joints of african american children
177
# Blood Disorders
polycythemia vera
red blood cell count is elevated because of living in high altitude or genetics
symptoms : phlebotomy is done at regular intervals
178
Blood Types :
Type A has A antigens on the red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in plasma
Type B has B antigens on the red blood cells and anti-A antibodies in plasma
Type AB has A & B antigens on the red blood cells and no antibodies in plasma
Type O has no antigens on the red blood cells and both A & B antibodies in plasma
This makes type AB the universal recipient and Type O the universal donor
Rh factor is an inherited protein found on red blood cells if you have the Rh factor your are positive and if you are negative you do not have the Rh factor
179
LYPHATIC SYSTEM
Primary function : protect body from foreign invaders
paired with veins the lymph vessels contract with skeletal muscle movement-- help collect excess tissue fluid
The accessory organs of the lymph system are : the lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, and spleen
The lymph nodes : trap bacteria and foreign body and destroy them. Two main lymph nodes are under the armpits and the inguinal area
May become enlarged and tender (lymphadenopathy)
Three sets of tonsils : palatine tonsils, the nasopharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) and lingual tonsils (back of tongue) -- these tissues assist in the development of speech and are protective barrier against infection
The thymus lies under the sternum and is the source of immunity in the first two years of life. After age two years the thymus gland begins to secrete thymosin to mature T-lympocytes that fight invaders. shrinks as we get older
The spleen lies in the left hypochondriac area and completes the duties of : filtering out bacteria from blood, destroys old red blood cells , stores iron, provides a reservoir of blood for an emergency, and produces phagocytes to fight foreign invaders
splenomegaly (enlarged spleen) occurs in syphilis, scarlet fever, typhoid, and typhus fever, infectious mononucleosis.
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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
serves to convey oxygen into the body and remove carbon dioxide
major organs include the trachea, the bronchi, and the lungs.
Respiration takes place in two phases : inspiration and exhalation
Movement of the diaphragm changes the air pressure in the thoracic cavity and allows air to rush into the lung via the trachea.
The trachea consists of C-shaped rings of cartilage
the trachea bifurcates into two bronchi leading to the lungs.
The right lung has 3 lobes and the left lung has 2 lobes
Air travels through the lungs via bronchi and bronchioles and terminated in the ballonlike alveoli
It is in the alveoli that oxygen molecules move into the bloodstream and are returned to the left side of the heart
At the same time carbon dioxide leaves the bloodstream crosses through the capillary and alveoli membranes, and begins the pathway back up the respiratory tract to be exhaled
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# Respiratory System Diseases
sinusitis
infection of the epithelial tissue of sinus cavities
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# Respiratory System Diseases
epistaxis
nose bleed
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# Respiratory System Diseases
coryza
nasal discharge
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# Respiratory System Diseases
influenza
inflammation of trachea, aches, pains , coughing , fever
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# Respiratory System Diseases
pneumonia
air spaces filled with fluid due to viral, bacterial ,chemical or aspiration irritation
186
# Respiratory System Diseases
tuberculosis
caused by mycobacterium bacilli, night sweats, cough with bloody sputum
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# Respiratory System Diseases
atelectasis
incomplete expansion of lung due to injury, mucus plug, cancer, or foreign body
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# Respiratory System Diseases
asthma
spasm of bronchus and bronchioles due to allergy
189
# Respiratory System Diseases
hayfever
watery eyes, sneezing, runny nose
190
# Respiratory System Diseases
URI (upper respiratory infection)
viral or bacterial infection of eyes, ears, nose, and throat; coughing, sneezing and sore throat
191
# Respiratory System Diseases
pneumothorax
collapse lung due to non-patent lung (bleb) or trauma
192
# Respiratory System Diseases
hemothorax
collapse of lung due to pressure from bleeding or trauma
193
# Respiratory System Diseases
lung cancer
15-30 times more likely when smoking
194
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
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secrete chemicals (hormones) that deliver messages through the bloodstream to distant tissues
the message directs the tissue to respond or perform and the endocrine gland monitors the response to determine whether additional stimulus is needed
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# Components of the Endocrine System
anterior pituitary
location: base of brain
Hormones :
growth hormone (GH) -- stimulates growth of long bone
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) -- stimulates growth of egg and in ovary or sperm in testes
melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) -- regulates skin pigment
leutinizing hormone (LH) -- stimulates ovulation
thyroid stimulating hormone -- stimulates thyroid to produce thyroxine
prolactin -- stimulates production of breast milk
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# Components of the Endocrine System
posterior pituitary
base of brain
Hormones :
ADH -- facilitates reabsorption of water in nephron of kidney
Prolactin -- stimulates milk ejection and uterine contraction
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# Components of the Endocrine System
pineal
center of the brain
Hormone:
melatonin -- controls sleep/wake cycles
198
# Components of the Endocrine System
Thymus
behind sternum
Hormone:
thymosine -- facilitates immunity by stimulating the growth of T- cells
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# Components of the Endocrine System
Thyroid
neck
| Hormone : thyroxine -- stimulates metabolism
200
# Components of the Endocrine System
pancreas
abdomen
| Hormone : insulin -- assists sugar to go from bloodstream into tissue
201
# Components of the Endocrine System
adrenal glands
top of kidney
Hormones :
aldosterone -- regulates sodium and potassium
cortisol -- regulates fat metabolism and blood pressure
202
# Components of the Endocrine System
ovaries/testes
lower abdomen / scrotum
Hormones :
estrogen/testosterone -- facilitates secondary sex characteristics
203
# Components of the Endocrine System
kidney gland
lower back
Hormone:
erythropoietin -- monitors blood for oxygen level
204
# Components of the Endocrine System
parathyroids
imbedded in thyroid
Hormone :
parathyroid hormone -- facilitates calcium into bloodstream
205
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Food is ingested into the mouth, where it is mechanically broken down by 32 permanent teeth and the tongue -- mixed with the salivary enzyme amylase, starch digestion begins.
Leaving the mouth the bolus of food moves into the pharynx where reflux swallowing (deglutition) forces it into the esophagus.
In the esophagus, food moves by peristalsis to the entry of the stomach, the cardiac sphincter --> sometimes this valve allows stomach tissue to slide through into the esophagus (hiatal hernia) other times the valve is not patent and digestive enzymes leak back up into the esophagus (gastrointestinal reflux disease or GERD)
In the stomach, gastric glands secrete hydrochloric acid and pepsin to break down connective tissue in food. The stomach stores food and releases it in small amount as a substance called chyme.
Chyme passes into the small intestine through the pyloric sphincter
Almost all digestion and absorption occurs in the small intestine
In the first third of the small intestine (duodenum) : chyme is neutralized by alkaline secretions from the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
Bile from gallbladder begin to breakdown fats
In the second two parts of the small intestine, the jejunum and the ileum, absorption of nutrients occurs through the villi of the small intestine
Amino acids (digested proteins), simple sugars and some fat components are absorbed directly into the blood capillaries located in the villi.
The liver has a variety of important functions in addition to the production of bile
- storage of sugar as glycogen
- formation of blood plasma proteins
- formation of urea from the metabolism of proteins
- modification of fats to promote their usefulness in the body
- detoxification of harmful substances such as alcohol and certain drugs
- storage of some vitamins and iron
The large intestines reabsorb water and stores and compacts waste
-elimination of solid waste is called defecation --stool called feces
Gaseous waste that is expelled through the rectum is called flatulence (fart)
and gas that escapes through your mouth is called eructation (burp)
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# Digestive System Diseases
cirrhosis of liver
chronic scarring of the liver
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# Digestive System Diseases
hemorrhoids
engorged and enlarged rectal veins due to increased intra-abdominal pressure
208
# Digestive System Diseases
constipation
hard, dry stools that are difficult to pass
209
# Digestive System Diseases
diarrhea
loose, watery stools
210
# Digestive System Diseases
petic ulcer
erosion of the mucus membrane of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum due to smoking, NSAIDS, alcohol, aspirin or helicobacter pylori
211
# Digestive System Diseases
irritable bowl syndrome
bowel is overly sensitive to stress, pain, diarrhea, weight loss, and rectal bleeding
212
# Digestive System Diseases
leukoplakia
thickened white patches in mouth
213
# Digestive System Diseases
cholelithiasis
stones formed from the substances in bile that have potential to block common bile duct and cause pain
214
# Digestive System Diseases
hepatitis A, B, C
inflammation of the liver that may be life threatening ;
hepatitis A -- caused by fecal - food contamination
hepatitis B/C -- caused by blood and body secretions
215
# Digestive System Diseases
pyloric stenosis
hardened, narrow lumen of the pyloric sphincter prohibits food from entering small intestines; symptoms include projectile vomiting, poor feeding and weight loss
216
# Digestive System Diseases
gingivitis
inflamed, bleeding pink tissue around teeth
217
URINARY SYSTEM
Eliminates metabolic waste from body; maintains appropriate levels of water; regulates acid-base balance (pH), blood pressure, and red blood cell production
Only 4 organs -- kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and the urethra
Urine is formed by millions of nephrons located in the kidneys
The nephron has a portion shaped like a C called the Bowmans capsule where water and waste is filtered from the blood
Molecules small enough to pass through the glomerulus and the cells of the Bowmans capsule leave the blood and enter the renal tubule.
Before elimination as urine, the glomerular filtrate must be concentrated or too much water would be lost, resulting in dehydration
The pituitary gland hormone ADH causes the proximal convoluted tubule, distal convoluted tubule and loop of Henle to become more permeable so that water is reabsorbed
The kidneys process up to 180 liters filtrate each day to create about 1 to 1.5 liters of urine.
The ureters drain the urine from the kidney to the holding area --- the bladder
The urethra carries the urine to the urinary meatus for excretion. Urination (micturition, voiding) is controlled by an involuntary internal sphincter muscle and a voluntary external urethral sphincter.
Urinary tract infections or UTIs affect women 10x more than men-- because we have a shorter urethra -- but even more so b/c of the proximity of the female urethra to the anus
glomerulonephritis -- inadequately treated strep infections and presets with abnormal constituents in urine such as albumin (albuminuria), pus (pyuria), glucose (glycosuria), or blood (hematuria)
Kidney stones are formed from excessive calcium or oxalates -- may cause painful blockages in ureters
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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
human reproduction requires the union of specialized male and female sex cells: the sperm and the egg
Sperm develop within the seminiferous tubules of the testes
testosterone influences sperm cell development and also produces the male secondary sex characteristics : lower voice, male hair patterns, and the development of broader shoulders than hips.
Sperm travels out of the body through a series of ducts that include : the epididymis, ductus deferens (vas deferns), ejaculatory duct and urethra -- they are transported in semen which is composed of secretions from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and bulbourethral glands --- semen nourishes the sperm, neutralizes the acidity encountered in the male urethra and female vagina -- and serves as a lubricant to the reproductive tract during sexual intercourse
Circumcision reduces the risk of HPV and phimosis (overly tight foreskin)
Undescended testicles are called cryptorchidism and may cause sterility unless corrected by school age
Testicular cancer is common in young men 15-25 years -- detected through testicular self exam
Surgery of one testicle does not significantly affect fertility
Prostate cancer is common in older men age 50 + -- retected by digital rectal exam or PSA exam (prostatic specific antigen) is a blood test and fairly accurate.
Female :
the ovary forms the egg.
Each month, under the effects of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) , at least one ovum matures within the follicle of the ovary
The mature egg travels down the fallopian tube , if fertilization occurs, it most often occurs in the outer third of the fallopian tube
Until implantation the developing tissue is called a zygote -- the estrogen produced by the cells of the follicle's membranous wall causes the endometrium of the uterus to begin preparation for pregnancy
The conversion of the ovarian follicle into the corpus lutetium produces a large amount of progesterone for 11-12 weeks
Under the influence of progesterone a fertilized egg implants into the uterus
- From this point until 8 weeks this will be called an embryo
Eventually the placenta forms and provides oxygen and nutrients from mother to fetus
Pregnancy lasts 280 days
Twins
identical - one fertilized egg spilts into two fertilized eggs
fraternal - two eggs are fertilized
From three months until birth the developing tissue is called a fetus
Common disorders of pregnancy :
-hypertension and spilling of protein called preeclampsia and may lead to maternal seizure (eclampsia)
- placenta previa is bleeding that occurs as the cervix dilates because the placenta is implanted low near the cervix
- abruptio placenta is the sudden, violent separation of the placenta that places both mother and fetus at risk for hemorrhage
When fertilization does not occur, the corpus lutetum gradually atrophies, hormone levels decline and menses begins. The length of a menstral cycle varries but it is usually 28 days
