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Psychology 1B > Psychobiology > Flashcards

Psychobiology Flashcards

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1
Q

dendrite

A

branch that receives information from other neurons

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2
Q

soma

A

cell body protecting nucleus and cell content, made of phospholipid bilayer that maintains negative charge of cell

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3
Q

nucleus

A

engine, where genetic material is stored and where neurotransmitters are produced

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4
Q

axon hillock

A

gatekeeper of transmission
- where soma turns into the axon
- graded potentials summed to determine if action potential will be fired

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5
Q

axon

A

long nerve fibre
- conducts electrical signals from cell body

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6
Q

myelin sheath

A

coating insulating the axon
- allows for faster signalling

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7
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

gaps of axon in between myelin sheath so that the electrical signal can jump between nodes and along axon

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8
Q

axon terminal

A

chemical messages released here, presynaptic part of the neuron

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9
Q

transfer of signal transfers and receives where

A

axon terminal transmits, dendrites receive

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10
Q

Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A

auto-immune disease where cells fail to myelinate axons
- reduces speed of transmission

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11
Q

Multipolar neuron

A

most complex, most common
- one axon, two or more dendrites

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12
Q

bipolar neuron

A

single dendrite spine

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13
Q

unipolar neuron

A

trigger zone instead of axon hillock, one structure extending from soma

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14
Q

classify neurons by function

A

sensory, motor, interneuron

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15
Q

sensory neuron

A

activated by sensory input
- vision, photoreceptors
- somatic, mechanoreceptors (touch, pressure)
- auditory, hair cells (vibration)

normally unipolar or bipolar, take information from smaller amount of receptor cells

send information to brain from periphery (afferent signal)

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16
Q

motor neuron

A

send information from brain to the periphery (efferent signal)

cell body located in spinal cord
- axon projects to the periphery to control muscles
- multipolar

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17
Q

interneuron

A

connect only to other neurons
- in brain
- generally multipolar
- involved in higher order processing, memory or cognition

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18
Q

Reflex Arc

A

simple example of neural communication

sensory neurons picks up information –> interneuron sends to spinal cord –> motor neuron causes neuron to fire and move muscles

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19
Q

CNS

A

brain and spinal cord

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20
Q

PNS

A

somatic, autonomic

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21
Q

somatic nervous system

A

controls most peripheral parts of the body (arms and legs)

  • brain controls bodily movements via skeletal muscles (efferent)
  • transmit sensory inform from periphery to CNS (afferent)
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22
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

surrounding the core area of body
- parasympathetic (normal bodily functioning)
- sympathetic nervous system (ready for action)

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23
Q

rostral or anterior orientation

A

front of brain

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24
Q

caudal or posterior orientation

A

back of brain

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25
Q

dorsal or superior

A

the top of brain

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26
Q

ventral or inferior

A

the bottom of brain

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27
Q

sagittal cut

A

slice from back to front

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28
Q

mid-sagittal cut

A

slice from back to front in the middle

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29
Q

coronal cut

A

slice from side to side

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30
Q

axial/horizontal…

A

sectioning across brain

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31
Q

gyrus

A

ridge on cerebral cortex

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32
Q

sulcus

A

a depression in cerebral cortex

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33
Q

fissure

A

deeper grove in cerebral cortex

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34
Q

hindbrain

A

control of vital functions
- adjacent to spinal chord

main regions
- medulla
- pons
- cerebellum

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35
Q

medulla

A

important for cranial nerve input, autonomic centre for heart rate and blood pressure

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36
Q

pons

A

above medulla, region for cranial nerve integration, respiration

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37
Q

cerebellum

A

fine motor control, bottom and end of brain
- cerebella ataxia occurs with damage to cerebellum

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38
Q

midbrain

A

relay station, relays information between hindbrain and forebrain

main regions
- tectum
- tegmentum

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39
Q

tectum

A

superior colliculus
- visual processing and control of eye movement

inferior colliculus
- auditory processing

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40
Q

tegmentum

A

unconscious processes, movement

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41
Q

forebrain

A

rostral

main regions
- hypothalamus
- thalamus
- amygdala
- hippocampus
- cerebral cortex

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42
Q

hypothalamus

A

controller of endocrine system
- pituitary releases hormones and hypothalamus regulates what comes out of pituitary glands

HPA axis
- neurons such as CRF of CRH which are released into pituitary which then release ACTH (adrenocorticotropic) which release glucose
- important for stress response, critical for homeostasis

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43
Q

thalamus

A

important relay for sensory signals to cerebral cortex

  • filter, determine what is important, judging sensory overloads
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44
Q

amygdala

A

emotions and fear responses

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45
Q

hippocampus

A

MEMORIES (how they are formed and stored)

  • Patient H.M.
    if removed - anterograde and partial retrograde amnesia, no effect on working memory and procedural memory
  • Morris Water Maze Research -
    animal trained where platform is, made blind and forced to find platform, at different insertion points it will find it faster, damaged hippocampus affected performance
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46
Q

frontal lobe

A

executive function, abstract thinking, problem solving, impulse control
- primary motor cortex (for skeletal movement)
- prefrontal association area, coordinating information from other areas

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47
Q

how to tell differences between different lobes

A
  • frontal and parietal lobe are seperated by central sulcus
  • the temporal lobe is where the lateral fissure is
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48
Q

Phineas Gage

A
  • rod through head hitting frontal lobe
  • unreliable, callous, hypersexual, poor socially, lack empathy
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49
Q

Frontal Lobotomy

A
  • white matter was severed from rest of brain (which connected frontal lobe)
  • produced state of plasticity
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50
Q

parietal lobe

A

involved in somatosensory cortex (interpretation)
- overrepresented areas that touch the world, mouth, feet, hands - think sensory homunculus

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51
Q

occipital lobe

A

visual processing through the visual cortex

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52
Q

temporal lobe

A

primary auditory cortex and primary olfactory cortex

  • smell and hearing
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53
Q

corpus callosum

A

white matter tract (myelinated axons) that connect the two hemispheres
- allows rapid communication between hemispheres of brain

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54
Q

Split Brain Patients

A
  • severed right and left hemispheres from each other, corpus callosum severed
  • input in left field
  • patients tested on tasks concerning what they see in left and right visual fields to judge if their regions can share information to either sides
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55
Q

synapse

A

chemical or electrical messages betweem neurons
- presynaptic sends and postsynaptic receives
- mainly chemical in humans

56
Q

electrical synapse

A
  • gap junctions, faster
  • synapse is closer together
  • less common, occur during development
  • ions flow through gap junction channels
57
Q

chemical synapse

A

slower, more processes for signal
- complex connection
- common

58
Q

Steps of Synaptic Communication 1-3 (calcium example)

A
  1. nerve impulse (action potential) at axon terminal
  2. voltage-gated (that open in response to electrical charge) calcium channels open, calcium floods into cell
  3. after channels open, increased calcium levels flow into cell and activate synaptic vesicles (that house neurotransmitters), activation of vesicles leads to release of neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft
59
Q

Steps of Synaptic Communication 4-6 (calcium example)

A
  1. neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft is free to bind to receptors on postsynaptic neuron
  2. when neurotransmitter binds to receptor, a ligand-gated ion channel opens
    a) excitation - sodium enters
    b) inhibition - other combinations opens different channels
  3. excitation or inhibition is known as postsynaptic potential (graded potential)
60
Q

after neurotransmitter released into synaptic cleft:

A

generally returned to presynaptic cell (neurotransmitter reuptake)

61
Q

forms of synaptic communication

A

axodendritic - axon terminal will synapse at dendrite

axosomatic - will synapse onto the synapse directly

axoaxonic - synapsing axon to axon, potentially to reduce the output of these neurons

62
Q

graded potentials

A

graded potential refers to changes in the membrane potential (or the difference in electrical potential inside and outside the cell) that vary depending on the size of the stimulus

  • neurons get information from other cells at synapse, changing the electrical charge of the cell membrane on the postsynaptic neuron
  • they move across the cell membrane towards the axon hillock, therefore they get a summation of all information they have received, information for IPSP and EPSP adds up (can cancel out)
63
Q

action potential ( or nerve impulse)

A

An action potential is a rapid, electrical signal that travels down a single cell, changes in voltages across voltage

an action potential will only fire once the membrane potential threshold is reached at the axon hillock

all or nothing phenomenon

64
Q

how charges move around cell membrane:

permeable membrane

electrical potential difference

A

cells will undergo a shift in electrical charge to have more or less negative charge inside the cell than outside

they do this through two things

  • permeable membrane
  • electrical potential difference
65
Q

depolarisation

A

positively charged sodium takes over negatively charged potassium inside the cell, making it positively charged

66
Q

hyperpolarisation

A

negative potassium takes over positively charged cell after sodium takes over by inhibiting action potential by increasing the stimulus to reach the action potential threshold

67
Q

refractory period

A

excitation reaches resting potential

68
Q

overshoot

A

when mV reaches above 0

69
Q

three criteria to be a neurotransmitter

A
  • must be present within the presynaptic neuron
  • must be released in response to presynaptic depolarisation and is Ca+ dependent
  • specific receptors must be present on postsynaptic cell
70
Q

neuromodulator

A

when neurotransmitter is not returned to presynaptic cell
- travels to adjacent cells to modulate their activity

occurs in
- monoamine neurotransmitters, in the cholinergic system and with neuropeptides

71
Q

classifying basic receptor functions

A

ionotropic and metabotropic

72
Q

ionotropic

A
  • ligand-gated ion channels neurotransmitter binds, ion channel opens
  • rapid effect
  • generates EPSPs and IPSPs
73
Q

metabotropic

A

g-protein coupled receptors (GPRCs)
- large number with no identified function
- it will bind at a receptor site, release protein
- essentially same effect, but as more is happening it tends to be slower

74
Q

features of GPCRs

A
  • intracellular messengers, could alter gene expression or the cell itself
  • slow/long acting
  • they can activate enzyme cascades
75
Q

amino acid neurotransmitters

A

glutamate, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

76
Q

cholinergic neurotransmission (acetylcholine)

A

nicotinic acetylcholine receptors
- ionotropic

muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
- metabotropic

77
Q

glutamate

A

primary excitatory neurotransmitter
- estimated ~50% of synapse utilise glutamate

three ionotropic receptor types
- AMPA (initiating EPSPs)
- Kainate (initiating EPSPs)
- NMDA (neuroplasticity and learning)

77
Q

glutamate-driven long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

synaptic connections between become stronger with frequent activation/occurence

    • AMPA receptors generate EPSPs
  • NMDA receptors increase the number of AMPA receptors at the synapse
  • Synaptic connection become stronger, more EPSPs generated
77
Q

Hebb’s Law:

A

cells that fire together, wire together
- when cells are simultaneously activated they form stronger connections
- this is the basis for learning and memory
- concerning neural and synaptic plasticity

78
Q

glutamate and learning conditioned responses

A

when a sea slug withdraws their gills they use NMDA

when they are put in a threat situation they withdraw

They were given an aversive stimuli to get them to withdraw their gills and then a neutral stimuli
- tail shock (the aversive one)
- syphon tap

it was done at the same time, and then they tapped the sypon alone
- they found the same gill withdrawal response

  • therefore learning is dependent on glutamate signalling
79
Q

GABA

A

gamma-aminobutyric acid

  • primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
  • brain produces GABA from glutamate, byproduct
  • estimated that ~25-40% synapses are GABAergic

GABAa receptor
- ionotropic
- multiple binding sites
- chloride ion channel
- early anti-seizure medications reduced neuronal firing by potentiating the effects of GABA

GABAb receptor
- metabotropic

80
Q

monoamine neurotransmitters

A

catecholamine (including dopamine, adrenaline/noradrenaline), serotonin, histamine

81
Q

Dopamine (monoamine)

A

receptors d1-d5
- g-protein coupled receptors
- involvement in reward system, ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens
- involved in motor function, substantia nigra to the striatal pathway

82
Q

Olds and Milner (1953) Dopamine Study

A
  • Rats preferred the part of the cage where they were when they received electrical stimulation to the medial forebrain bundle
  • They would quickly learn to press a level to obtain this stimulation, later found to be the VTA
  • The desire to stimulate this region is so strong an animal may starve itself
  • Later work established that stimulation to this region leads to dopamine release
83
Q

Dopamine Parkinson’s Disease

A
  • Movement related disorder, shaking and slow movement
  • Caused by destruction of the dopamine producing cells of the substantia nigra
  • Early idea for treatment: increase levels of dopamine (L-DOPA) - effect could only last so long due to neuronal loss
84
Q

adrenaline/noradrenaline

A
  • Alpha (1-2) and beta (1-3) receptors
  • metabotropic g-protein coupled receptors
  • A major neurotransmitter associated with sympathetic nervous system activation and the cardiovascular system
  • Also a stress hormone involved in fight-or-flight
  • Within the CNS
  • Responsible for vigilant concentration, in important situations
85
Q

Serotonin (5-HT)

A
  • lots of receptors
  • all metabotropic except 5-HT 3 (ionotropic)
  • diverse range of function
  • mood disorders –> major depressive orders, most pharmacological treatments target this system (reuptake inhibitors)

involved in
- appetite
- sleep
- cognitive function
- important outside of the brain as well

86
Q

histamine

A
  • receptors metabotropic, h1-4
  • sleep-wake cycle
  • histamine neurons are continuously firing during our waking hours, drops down by 75% during slow wave sleep, stops completely during REM
87
Q

peptide neurotransmitters

A

endorphins, oxytocin, neuropeptide Y, angiotensin II, corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF)

  • they are not lipid soluble (they cant freely pass the phospholipid bilayer), work by acting in the cell
88
Q

endorphins

A

located within the autonomic nervous system released from the pituitary to inhibit pain signalling broadly across the body, the somatic nervous system where they inhibit sensory pain signalling, within other brain centres mediating subjective pleasure
- “endogenous morphine”
- g-protein coupled receptors
- function to block pain and induce pleasure

89
Q

oxytocin

A

love hormone
- pair bonding
involved in social and maternal bonding

90
Q

neuropeptide Y

A
  • drives appetite
  • elevated NPY leads to an obese phenotype
  • genetically removing NPY receptors prevents diet-induced obesity
91
Q

angiotensin II

A
  • involved in thirst, drinking, hypertension and body fluid homeostasis
  • drives hypovolemic thirst
  • stimulating ang II induces drinking
92
Q

corticotrophin-releasing factor

A
  • involved in the stress response, HPA axis
  • causes ACTH production and release from pituitary
  • suppresses appetite
  • increases feelings of anxiety
93
Q

drug

A

exogenous chemical that significantly alters function of cells in the body when taken at low doses (external to internal)

94
Q

burdens of drug use and abuse

A

social acceptability, economic cost

95
Q

agonist

A

chemical binds to a receptor, activates the receptor and produces biological effect, more activity at that receptor

96
Q

antagonist

A

chemical binds to a receptor, prevents agonist-mediated effects, blocked activity at receptor

97
Q

enzyme inhibitors

A

molecules that prevent enzymes from working normally

98
Q

pharmacodynamics

A

physiological effects of the drug on the body

99
Q

pharmacokinetics

A

effects of the body on the drug, such as metabolism

100
Q

routes of drug administration

A

intravenous; into vein
intraperitoneal; into the gut
subcutaneous; under the skin
intramuscular; into muscle
inhalation; into lungs
topical; through skin
oral; via mouth

101
Q

tolerance

A

repeated administration results in diminished effect (or requires increased dosage to maintain effect)
- goes in hand with withdrawal effects

sensitisation: repeated administration results in heightened effectiveness of the drug

102
Q

antidepressants

A

monoamine oxidase inhibitors
- Prevent breakdown of monoamine neurotransmitters
- Monoamine oxidase metabolises these neurotransmitters, meaning when these are blocked there are more available to the cell

tricyclic antidepressants
- Inhibited reuptake of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE), more of these in the synaptic cleft, more of these neurotransmitters to bind

SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)
- inhibited reuptake of 5-HT
- Specifically blocked the SERT (serotonin transporter)

103
Q

antipsychotics

A

Typical
- D2 receptor antagonist, block dopamine receptors as they sit on the D2 receptors,
- Extrapyramidal side effects, like parkinsons, as movement is a key function related to movement that overactivated dopamine activity to the frontal lobe

Atypical
- Dual D2 and 5-HT2 antagonist
- Would bind at the receptor less tightly and would be released faster from binding site, creating less side effects

104
Q

anxiolytics

A
  • work at GABAa receptor
  • work at benzodiazepine
105
Q

depressants

A
  • sedative/hypnotics
  • narcotics
  • work at GABAa receptor
  • alcohol: depressant due to its effect on GABA signalling and inhibition of glutamate signalling
  • opiates and opioids: therapeutic opium poppy use predates recorded history, to treat acute pain, commonly abused drug dependence common
106
Q

other types of drugs

A

mood stabilisers, stimulants, hallucinogens

107
Q

hormone

A

chemical messengers, generally synthesised by specialised glands, carried by the circulation to target tissues and organs

  • vary throughout the day
108
Q

neural communication

A

direct communication between neurons, rapid, all or none phenomenon

109
Q

endocrine communication

A

hormone sent out and acts on receptors for that particular hormone, signal travels everywhere, slower, graded strength

110
Q

types of hormones

A

peptide hormones, steroid hormones, amine hormones (composed of a single amino acid modified into a related molecule)

111
Q

peptide hormones

A

composed of strings of amino acids
- protein hormones
- enzyme leave “prepro” and “pro” hormones to their active form
- migrate to transport vesicles
- packaged into secretory vesicles
- released by exocytosis from cell membrane

112
Q

steroid hormones

A

produced from cholesterol –> specific steroid
- produced in gonads or adrenal glands

  • released by diffusion from the cell
  • lipid soluble
113
Q

amine hormones

A

derived from amino acids

  • base products formed into proteins
  • release similar to peptide hormones (by exocytosis)
114
Q

how are hormones signalled throughout the body

A
  • Endocrine or neuroendocrine cells release hormones into the bloodstream (primary mechanism)
  • autocrine vs paracrine signalling
  • Paracrine hormones act locally on adjacent cells, generally providing negative feedback
  • Autocrine signals provide feedback to the cell from which they were released
115
Q

hormones altering cellular function

A

Act at receptors to alter cell function, change what is being produced

promote the proliferation, growth and differentiation of cells

modify the activity of the cell

116
Q

inputs controlling secretion of hormones

A

secretion: when substances are discharged from the cell

endogenous factors
- Changes in circulating concentrations of ions (Na+) or nutrients (glucose)
- Direct innervation from the nervous system
- Another hormone acting on endocrine cell

117
Q

stressors

A
  • things that cause stress to an organism
  • can be acute or chronic
  • both lead to the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and HPA axis
118
Q

HPA-axis

A

stress response

CRF –> pituitary –> ACTH –> adrenal cortex –> glucocorticoids –> regulate of brain and peripheral function

119
Q

how does the somatic nervous system control body movement

A
  • brain receives somatosensory input
  • information is integrated and the motor cortex initiates action
  • somatic motor neurons control the actions of muscles
120
Q

what do IPSPS and EPSPs refer to (graded potential)

A

in reference to potentials of electrical conductance of the cell:

decrease in voltage are inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

increase in voltage are excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

121
Q

what is the membrane resting potential and threshold

A
  • membrane resting potential is ~-70mV
  • membrane threshold is ~-55mV
122
Q

how does a permeable membrane help charges move around the cell

A

permeable membrane

  • the phospholipid bilayer prevents ions from moving around freely

a permeable membrane means ions would diffuse (from higher concentration to lower concentration) evenly

outside cell (extracellular space) there is a lot of sodium
- it is trying to get into the cell through ion channels

  • inside the cell (intracellular space) there is a lot of potassium
  • is close to equilibrium potential and wants to leave (-90mV)
  • more permeable than sodium
123
Q

how does electrical potential difference help charges move around a cell

A

electrical potential difference
- positive ions are drawn to negatively charged space
- there is a lot of potassium in the cell which is positively charged, and there is a lot of sodium outside of the cell which is negatively charged
- they may try to reach an equilibrium by leaving and entering the cell

124
Q

what is the role of the cholinergic system in different nervous systems

A

transmission system for somatic nervous system and is a major component of the autonomic nervous system

widely expressed in CNS, projections through forebrain and the hindbrain
- within the CNS the forebrain cholinergic system is associated with cognitive function
- 4/5 approved medications for the side effects of Alzheimer’s disease act on the cholinergic system

125
Q

Extracellular space outside of a cell contains a lot of ________

A

sodium

126
Q

Intracellular space inside of a cell contains a lot of _______

A

potassium

127
Q

what types of hormones are lipid soluble

A

steroid neurotransmitters are lipid soluble

peptide and amine transmitters are not, they bind with receptors that allow them to transit signals as opposed to the cell itself

128
Q

phospholipid bilayer characteristics

A
  • maintains negative charge of the cell
  • prevents ions from moving around freely
129
Q

gap junction

A

membrane channel between cells where substances can be exchanged from one cell to an adjacent one

130
Q

exocytosis

A

way of transporting cell contents to something outside of cell

  • fusion of secretory vesicles (things leaving the cell) with a plasma membrane
  • hormones do this when they are not lipid soluble
131
Q

what are the two catecholamine neurotransmitters

A

adrenaline, dopamine

132
Q

correct order of the process of an action potential

A

depolarisation - repolarisation - hyperpolarisation - refractory period

133
Q

afferent

A

periphery to brain

134
Q

efferent

A

brain to periphery

Psychology 1B (6 decks)

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