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Psychology 1B > Memory & Cognition > Flashcards

Memory & Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

Inattentional Blindness

A

failure to see something we’re looking at, occurs because attention is preoccupied

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2
Q

Visual Pop-Out

A

idea that some basic features don’t need attention to be seen

  • “primitive” features would naturally stand out
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3
Q

Feature Integration Theory - Anne Treisman

A

when perceiving a stimulus,
- features are “registered early, automatically, and in parallel,
- while objects are identified separately” and at a later stage in processing.

attention serves to bind simple features together, the binding process is slow and serial

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4
Q

Spatial Attention

A

selecting chunks of areas as a means of searching for an item

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5
Q

Change Blindness

A

bad at noticing even large changes and a failure to update representations between views

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5
Q

Feature Based Attention

A

prioritizes the processing of non-spatial features across the visual field, processing of entire visual field as opposed to select chunks

for example someone wearing a bright colour shirt will stand out in visual field

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6
Q

Memory Athletes don’t

A
  • score higher on general cognitive ability
  • have a larger hippocampus

instead fMRI showed that they used different brain areas, often involved in visual imagery and spatial navigation and they use encoding strategies

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7
Q

encoding

A

how information is put into the mind

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8
Q

retrieving

A

how information is pulled out of the mind

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9
Q

Multi-Store Model of Memory

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1998

input –> sensory memory
–> short-term memory (working) –> long term memory

short to long term memory = consolidation
long to short term memory = retrieval
sensory to short term memory = attention

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10
Q

sensory memory

A

“iconic memory”

richly detailed visual memory that persists for a fraction of a second

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11
Q

working memory

A

short-term memory
- information is consciously focussed with attention

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12
Q

Memory Palace Method

A

connect images to subjects, placed along a path and then repeat process

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13
Q

Chess Configurations - Chase & Simon, 1973

A
  • child experts used chunking to understand the pieces of information better than adult novices despite the adults larger memories

meaning is imposed on the subjects of memorisation

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14
Q

schema

A

knowledge or expectations about a domain or event, structuring information in the mind

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15
Q

The Deese/Roediger-McDermott Effect

A

memory can be distorted by our biases and assumptions and by misleading information

–> by our schemas

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16
Q

The War of The Ghosts - Frederic Bartlett (1932)

A

suggested that recollections become increasingly shaped by our schemas as detailed memories fade

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17
Q

Elizabeth Loftus & Palmer, 1974 - False Memories

A

the way the question is asked can alter the answers or interpretations of the event, information gained about event after it occurs may inform what you think has happened

  • Creation of the Cognitive Interview
    1. Mentally reinstate context
    2. Report everything, even extraneous details

for example
- how hard did the car hit you?
- vs
- how hard did the car smash into you?

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18
Q

Source Monitoring includes

A

keeping track of where memories come from

external source, internal source, reality monitoring

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19
Q

internal and external source monitoring

A

External: distinguishing information retrieved from external sources, “what i thought vs what they thought”

Internal: distinguishing information retrieved from, “what i thought vs what i said”

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20
Q

Recognition

A

Recognition: identifying something as familiar to a previous experience

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21
Q

desirable difficulties

A

bjork & bjork 2011

challenges that may seem to slow down learning and performance, but which lead to longer and better memory

include:
retrieval practice, spaced practice, elaboration (deep encoding)

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22
Q

retrieval practice

A

practicing recalling information
- can result in retrieval failure
- done by re-studying for higher retention

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23
Q

retrieval failure

A

failing to retrieve something

some types include:
- blocking: the feeling of there being something interfering with access to memory, even though the memories are intact and well-encoded
- tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the feeling of not being able to bring a word to mind despite being able to recall things associated to it

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24
Q

spaced practice

A

as opposed to massed practice

consolidation: the stabilisation of memories that have already been encoded, spread out over time

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25
Q

elaboration (deep encoding)

A

link parts of material to each other and to your own interests, generate new examples, force engagement with deeper meaning

actively forming mental links

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26
Q

Why may emotions relate to memory?

A

amygdala and hippocampus are in close proximity

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27
Q

Example of emotion relationship to memory

A
  • Rats that had adrenaline blocked prevented retention of stressful memories
  • In people, a beta-blocker to block adrenaline eliminated memory enhancement for an emotional story rather than a non-emotional story
  • Amygdala activity correlated with better memory for emotional images
  • Events have emotional power when they are important to us
  • Hormones released with strong emotions seem to solidify memory
28
Q

example of an undesirable difficulty

A

sleep loss hurts memory

  • 6 hours or less per night caused deficits equivalent to 2 nights sleep deprivation, sleepiness ratings suggested that participants were unaware of the deficits
  • important for memory consolidation
29
Q

flashbulb memory

A

vivid recollection of where you were and what you were doing when something emotional occurred

30
Q

Patient H.M

A
  • removed hippocampus to treat epilepsy
  • it cured seizures but lost ability to create new memories
  • no change on cognitive intelligence but they got anterograde amnesia
31
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

inability to create new memories, difficulting moving information from working memory to long-term memory
- more common
- damage to hippocampus, medial temporal lobe

32
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

inability to access old memories
- typically more profound for most recent memories
- old memories have had time to consolidate

33
Q

Diagram of Memory

A
34
Q

hyperthymestic syndrome

A

highly superior autobiographical memory

35
Q

memory is conscious and unconscious

A

conscious
- episodic: events
- semantic: facts

unconscious
- conditioned: making associations between stimuli or an S and an R
- primed: prior exposure changes performance or judgement
- procedural: skills and rules

36
Q

external and internal attention

A

external: to the world
- modality
- features and objects
- location
- time

internal: in self
- long-term memory
- working memory
- selecting responses

37
Q

Alan Baddeley’s Model of Working Memory

A

working memory manipulates and manages information in buffers and the central executive works with these buffers in mind

the buffers can include
- phonological loop: stores auditory information briefly

  • episodic buffer: integrates information into new representations
  • visuospatial sketchpad: stores visual information briefly
38
Q

automatic process

A

minimal cognitive effort required, natural

39
Q

controlled process

A

effortful, more cognitive involvement

40
Q

cognitive load

A

how demanding or difficult each task is

41
Q

overlap

A

how much tasks compete for same mental resources

tested
- people drove while performing working memory task
- 97.5% were impaired in both
- 2.5% weren’t impaired at all: supertasker

42
Q

Serial Position Effect

A

primacy effect (remembering first thing seen) - advantage as it is rehearsed more

recency effect (remembering the last thing seen) - advantage as it is still fresh from short-term memory

primacy is strong in recall compared to recency effect

43
Q

confabulation

A

use of common sense, learned experience and memories interacting to fill in a blank

44
Q

elaborative encoding

A

telling self a story strategy, connecting new information to memories you already have

45
Q

explicit and implicit memory

A

explicit - conscious (declarative)
implicit - unconscious (non-declarative)

46
Q

introspection

A

technique by Wundt

attempt to carefully observe one’s own mental experiences as they unfolded

47
Q

problems of introspection

A

validity - may not have conscious access to most basic cognitive processes

fallibility of memory - lacks accuracy

reliability - subjective observations are hard to replicate

48
Q

behaviourism

A

studied only outward behaviour

  • succeeded in predicting and modifying behaviour without needing to consider mental processes
  • then new findings were discovered that were unexplainable by behaviourists
49
Q

Chomsky

A

linguistics
- as children learn they make grammar errors that follow grammar rules, which cognitively represent language rules although just applied in the wrong circumstances
- how did they know this? cognition

50
Q

when can we multi-task

A

only when one task demands attentional resources

51
Q

declarative memory

A

memories we have conscious access to
- semantic
- episodic

52
Q

semantic memory

A

long-term capacity to recall words, concepts and numbers, essential for language

53
Q

episodic

A

long-term ability to learn, store, and retrieve personal and unique experiences occurring in daily life

54
Q

recall

A

mentally searching and retrieving information from long-term memory

55
Q

reality monitoring

A

distinguishing between internal and external sources

56
Q

interleaved practice

A

when you are learning two or more related concepts or skills, instead of focusing exclusively on one concept or skill at a time, it can be helpful to alternate between them

57
Q

two strategies in elaboration

A

self-reference effect: better memory for material when you think about how it connects to you

generation effect: better remember material we generate ourselves rather than material just memorised

58
Q

state dependent learning

A

people will remember more information if they are doing the same thing when this information was first encoded, i.e. if John is studying while eating a big meal, he will remember the information he learnt when he was studying the next time he eats a big meal

59
Q

Craik & Tulving (1975) found that

A

the deeper the encoding, the better the memory

60
Q

what helps consolidate memory

A
  • sleep
  • emotions
  • exercise
61
Q

shallow coding

A

focus on surface level features

62
Q

primed memory

A

prior exposure changes performance or judgement

63
Q

conditioned memory

A

making associations between stimuli or between stimulus and response

64
Q

procedural memory

A

skills and rules, patient H.M could still play the piano even though he couldn’t remember ever learning it

65
Q

unconscious memory

A

procedural, conditioned, primed

66
Q

visuospatial sketchpad

A

working memory stores visual information briefly

67
Q

episodic buffer

A

working memory integrates information into new representations

68
Q

phonological loop

A

working memory stores auditory information briefly

Psychology 1B (6 decks)

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