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Psych - Social psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Attribution Theory

A

A set of theories that describe how people explain the causes of behavior

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2
Q

Heider (1958) general ideas

A

We are all intuitive scientists trying to come up with explanations of other people’s behavior

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3
Q

Types of Attributions (Explanations)

A
  1. I walk into classroom on 1st day of class and trip on the cord for the projector.

Why did I trip?
- Personal (dispositional) attribution: Jim is a clumsy person, drops stuff, and trips all the time
- Situational attribution: cord was in a bad spot, could have happened

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4
Q

Personal or Situational (Film)? Someone comes out of the movie theater and raves about the film

A

Personal (Dispositional) Attribution: He likes everything

Situational (stimulus) attribution: Great film!

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5
Q

Kelley’s Attribution Theory

A
  1. For behaviors that are consistent, people make personal attributions when consensus and distinctiveness are low
  2. People will make stimulus (situational) attributions when consensus and distinctiveness are high
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6
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A

When explaining the behavior of other people. We overestimate the role of personal (or dispositional) factors and underestimate role of situational factors.

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7
Q

Are we drive by personal factors or situational factors?

A

We act as if other people are driven by personal factors but we are driven more by situational factors.

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8
Q

Pro and Anti-Castro Speeches

A

First demonstration of FAE
- Subjects read a speech supposedly written by students, either in favor of or against Fidel Castro
- Half subjects were told that the student was assigned the position (pro or con).
- Half were told that students freely choose the viewpoint
- Subjects then rated student’s author’s attitude towards Castro

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9
Q

Friendly Woman (Napolitan and Goethals)

A
  1. College students talked one at a time with a young woman who acted either aloof and critical, or warm and friendly
  2. Beforehand they told half the subjects that the woman’s behavior was spontaneous.
  3. Told the other half that she was instructed to act in a certain way
  4. Then subjects were asked about the woman’s personality
  • Information that she was instructed to act that way had no effect
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10
Q

Quiz Show Game

A
  1. A simulated quiz show gave questioners an advantage over contestants
  2. Observers had to rate how much general knowledge the questioners and the contestants had
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11
Q

Who do we have this bias (Fundamental attribution error)?

A

Gilbert and Malone
- Attributions are a two stage process
- Make quick reflex-like initial attribution (personal)
- Then we update attribution based on situational factors

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12
Q

What could also be contribution to Fundamental Attribution Error?

A
  1. When we explain our own behavior, we can draw on memories of MANY different situations.
  2. We know that we have behaved differently in different situations
  3. Maybe I tripped on cord today, but I also know that I was a star athlete in high school
  4. Sam person in many different situations
  5. This knowledge allows me to give more weight to the situation and less to invariant personal trait (clumsiness).
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13
Q

What is self-serving bias?

A

We have self-serving bias to maintain our self-esteem. Better for me to blame tripping on the cord being in a bad place, than blame it on myself

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14
Q

Above Average Effect

A
  1. The College Board asked one million high school students to rate themselves on various abilities/traits
  2. Leadership ability: 70% above average, only 2% below
  3. Ability to “get along with others”: 100% said above average. 60% said they were top 10%
  4. Athletic Ability: 60% above average, only 6% below
  5. University professors: 94% said they were better at their job than their colleagues
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15
Q

Just World Hypothesis

A

Belief that the world is basically a just place and therefore people get what they deserve. Good things happen to good people. Bad things happen to someone, they must have done something to cause it

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16
Q

Experiment on JWH

A
  • Study on “perception of emotional cues”
  • Select a participant at random (confederate)
  • confederate gets electric shock for wrong answer
  • other subjects said that they looked down on the confederate and blame her for her own predicament
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17
Q

Monkey see, Monkey do? The chameleon effect

A
  • participants worked with a ‘partner’ who was really one of the experimenters
  • ‘partner’ rubbed face, shook foot, etc.
  • hidden cameras recorded behavior
  • participants mimicked their partner without realizing it
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18
Q

Autokinetic Effect

A

The illusion that a stationary spot of light is moving when viewed in a darkened room. Have to estimate how much the light moves - no reference points available

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19
Q

Asch Paradigm

A

Asked which line is most like the standard line. Results found that subjects conformed 37% of the time

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20
Q

What were the Asch paradigm subjects influenced by?

A
  • size of group
  • ambiguity of judgment
  • status of group members
  • presence of other dissenters
  • individual and cultural differences
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21
Q

Group size and conformity

A
  • Conformity increases with group size up to about 4-7 people
  • adding additional persons has little effect
  • one dissenter can reduce conformity by up to 80 percent
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22
Q

Conformity in the Sherif and Asch Paradigms: What happens when retested without group?

A

Sherif: Still answer using group norms
Asch: Now answer based on own judgment
Private acceptance vs. public compliance

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23
Q

Private conformity (Sherif)

A

Both behavior and opinions change

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24
Q

Public conformity (Asch)

A
  • Temporary and superficial change
  • Outward compliance, inward maintenance of previous beliefs
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25
Q

Sherif Paradigm: Private acceptance

A

Social comparison theory
We want to know if our opinions are correct and how good our abilities are. To the extent that physical reality is ambiguous, we are dependent upon “social reality”

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26
Q

Normative Power

A

The power that arises because the individual fears punishment from group. Always present in social situations. Decreases with presence of other dissenters.

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27
Q

Basics of Milgram’s Shock Study

A
  1. Three people: experimenter and two subjects
  2. Draw lots to see who is “learner” and who is the “teacher”
  3. Teacher punishes “learner” with shocks
  4. Shocks get more intense
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28
Q

What Effects Compliance?

A
  1. Authority of experimenter: more compliance at Yale then at less prestigious location
  2. If “learner” is in another room, more compliance. If you can see victim less compliance
  3. Force hand onto shock plate, less compliance
  4. Experimenter not in room compliance fell
  5. If “teacher” could choose shocks never picked over 45 volts
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29
Q

Milgram facts

A
  1. Punishers did not seem to show long term negative effects of their experience
  2. Obedience rates have no changed in 40 years after study (Blass, 1999)
  3. Men and women show equal rates of obedience in Milgram-type studies
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30
Q

Stanford Prison Experiment

A
  1. 21 students were randomly assigned to be either prisoners or prison guards
  2. Neither group received any specific training
  3. Created mock prison-like environment
  4. Videotape, questionnaires, self-report scales, interviews
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31
Q

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon (milgram shock study)

A

Tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

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32
Q

Takeaways from Stanford Prison Experiment

A
  1. Social setting and social roles dictate behavior
  2. Power of situation/environment on behavior
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33
Q

What did the Milgram shock experiment demonstrate?

A

The strength of social influence on behavior and obedience to authority.

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34
Q

Altruism

A
  • Helping behavior that is motivated primarily by a desire to benefit others, not oneself
  • Altruism is a paradox from an evolutionary point of view
  • Why take a risk or incur a cost to help someone else?
  • Work on passing on your genes…
35
Q

Why are we Altruistic?

A
  • Help our relatives, we help ourselves (share some of our genes)
  • Maybe we help friends because of extension of “helping relatives”
  • Reciprocity
  • But what about strangers?
  • We don’t (help strangers very often)
  • In some cases, it is rewarding to help
36
Q

Altruism: Two pathways to helping

A

People have reactions to someone in need:
1. Personal distress (guilt, anxiety, and discomfort)
2. Empathy (sympathy and compassion for the person)
Helping can satisfy both selfish and noble motives

37
Q

Catherine (Kitty) Genovese Case

A
  1. Woman was attacked and stabbed by assailant at 3 am near her home
  2. Many neighbors (38) heard her screams for help
  3. No one helped her or even called police till 45 minutes later
  4. She died of her wounds
38
Q

Darley and Latane

A
  1. Investigated why people decide to help or not help
  2. Study of how students adjust to University LIfe (cover story)
  3. In separate rooms, speak over intercom, can only speak one at a time
  4. Varied (apparent) number of students
  5. Emergency: epileptic seizure
39
Q

Bystander Effect

A

The more observers there were, the less likely that anyone would help.

Diffusion of responsibility

40
Q

A model of bystander intervention

A

Ask all of these questions: notice the incident? Interpret as an emergency? Assume responsibility? Decide to intervene? if all of the answers are yes then you help. But if any of them are no you don’t help

41
Q

When is helping more likely?

A
  1. In a good mood.
  2. Feels guilty or needs self-esteen boost
  3. Observes another person helping
  4. Not pressed for time
  5. bystander is male and victim is female
  6. victim is physically attractive
  7. victim makes a direct request for help
  8. vistim appears to deserve help
  9. victim is more similar in some way to bystander
  10. in a small town or rural area not big city
42
Q

What are the two routes of influence?

A

Central Route vs. Peripheral Route

43
Q

Central Route of influence

A

Audience is influenced by the strength and quality of the arguments.

44
Q

Peripheral Route of influence

A

Audience is influenced by speaker’s appearance, slogans, one-liners, emotions, audience reactions and other superficial cues

45
Q

Central Route (Systematic) Persuasion

A
  1. A change in attitude brought about by an appeal to reason and logic
  2. Strong evidence and arguments are presented
  3. Works when people are analytical or involved in the issue
  4. People have ability and motivation to think critically
46
Q

Peripheral Route (Heuristic) Persuasion

A
  1. A change in attitude brought about by appeals to habit and emotion
  2. Incidental cues, such as celebrity endorsements are used
  3. Used when issues don’t engage systematic thinking
  4. People rely on shortcuts (heuristics) to make a decision
  5. Mental shortcuts, audience has low ability or motivation
47
Q

What are 3 factors that affect persuasion?

A
  1. Nature of Audience
  2. The Source: the person delivering the message
  3. Characteristics of the message itself
48
Q

How does the audience affect persuasion

A

Need to tailor message to your audience, same message that might work well with one will flop with another

Audience: need for cognition (satisfaction find intellectually challenging tasks)

High need for cognition audiences prefer central route.

Low need for cognitions audiences swayed peripheral route.

49
Q

What makes a source persuasive?

A

Credibility
- Expertise and honesty
- Most likely to buy a product if a positive review is attributed by Consumer reports

Likeability
- similar to us
- good-looking
- Chaiken, tried to get students to sign a petition, better looking students got more signatures

50
Q

How does being tall mirror credibility?

A

The taller a man the more money he makes. Being tall mirrors credibility

51
Q

How does being good looking mirror likeability?

A

We associate beauty with other desirable qualities, assume good looking person is also smart, successful, happy, confident, socially skilled and popular

52
Q

How does the message affect persuasion?

A
  1. No more than a moderate discrepancy from the what the audience expects
  2. Can’t “shock” audience with “radical” message, tends to backfire
  3. In political context, gives big advantage to anyone who fits with ‘status quo’ (new ideas are suspect)
53
Q

Main takeaway from Edwards and Smith experiment

A

The bar is set higher is you’re trying to persuade people of something inconsistent with prior beliefs.

example: given papers with arguments that either the subjects agreed or disagreed with, spent more time scrutinizing and looking for flaws in arguments that contradicted prior beliefs.

54
Q

Self-Persuasion: Cognitive Dissonance

A
  1. We don’t always behave in ways consistent with our own stated attitudes
  2. Behavior that conflicts with attitudes can arouse cognitive dissonance
  3. Unless there is some explanation for the behavior
  4. Dissonance creates tension; the person is motivated to reduce the tension
  5. One way to reduce dissonance is to change the attitude that conflicts with behavior
55
Q

Festinger’s Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

A

Proposes that people change their attitudes to reduce the cognitive discomfort created by inconsistencies between their attitudes and their behavior. The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent
It’s difficult for a person to change their view until they change their behavior

56
Q

Festinger and Carlsmith Study

A
  1. Subjects had to perform really boring tasks
  2. Had to convince another person that it was fun.
  3. Three groups: control group, group paid $1, group paid $20
  4. Dissonance created: know it was dull, but you act like it was fun
  5. then all subjects asked to rate the enjoyment of task
  6. Group paid $1said that they enjoyed it the most
57
Q

Cognitive Dissonance

A

Problem:
Saying that you liked the test, but you didn’t actually like the test

Solution 1: Change a cognition
I said I liked the task=I liked the task

Solution 2: Add a justifying cognition
I said I liked the task, but I didn’t like the task, but I got paid a lot of money to say it

58
Q

Social Facilitation

A
  1. Presence of others often increases performance.
  2. Run faster if run with other people
  3. But sometimes other people lower performance
  4. Presence of others increases arousal AND leads to increases in dominant response (response most likely to occurr)
  5. Will facilitate simple tasks but not a more complex task
  6. Perform better at easy things if others around (more aroused) but may be worse at hard things
59
Q

Example of Social Facilitation

A

For example, for a professional performer playing in front of other people should not impair their performance, but for an amateur playing in front of a crowd may result in worse performance

60
Q

Social Loafing

A

Less effort exerted by individuals in a group especially when individual contributions are hard to separate from the whole

61
Q

Examples of Social Loafing

A
  1. People in a group feel less accountable for their actions
  2. People in a group worry less about what others think
  3. People in a group may view their contributions as dispensable
  4. May get a ‘free ride’ at other’s expense
62
Q

‘Tug of War’ Study

A
  1. Blindfolded subjects
  2. Had them pull as hard as they can on a rope
  3. Convinced them at 3 others were pulling also
  4. Only put in 82% as much effort as they had when pulling alone
63
Q

Clapping example of Social Loafing

A
  1. Subjects were told to clap or cheer alone or when they thought they were in groups of various sizes
  2. The more people in the group, the more each individual’s amount of effort decreases
64
Q

Social Loafing and Diffusion of Responsibility

A

A major reason why social loafing occurs is the diffusion of responsibility, which means that the responsibility for a task is spread across all members of the group so the individual accountability is lessened.

65
Q

What happens with social loafing in larger groups?

A

The larger the group, the less likely it is that a social loafer will be detected and the more responsibility for the task gets diffused across group members. However, for groups in which individual contributions are identifiable and evaluated, social loafing decreases

66
Q

Ways to decrease social loafing

A
  1. Separate each individual’s contribution from overall group performance
  2. Each individual’s task is necessary for overall group success
  3. Reward individual as well as group
  4. Group members are friends
  5. Make tasks personally meaningful
67
Q

Groupthink

A

Groupthink occurs when group members try to maintain harmony in a decision-making group and ignore conflicting or opinions

68
Q

What do some behaviors look like in groupthink?

A
  1. Examining few alternatives
  2. Selective gathering of information
  3. Pressure to conform within the group
  4. Pressure to withhold criticism
  5. Collective rationalization
69
Q

Group polarization

A

The strengthening of a group’s prevailing opinion about a topic following group discussion of the topic

70
Q

Example of group polarization

A

For instance, if students who don’t like a particular class all start thinking about that class, they will leave the discussion disliking the class even more because each student may provide different reasons for disliking the class. Each member learns new reasons for his or her dislike of the class

71
Q

Deindividuation

A
  1. Happens in a group or crowd
  2. Diminished self-consciousness
  3. Loss of normal restraints
  4. Lower awareness of individual values
  5. More likely to occur when there is anonymity
72
Q

Social Identity Theory

A

States that when you’re assigned to a group, you automatically think of that group as an in-group for you. Form in-group (identify with) and out-group (don’t identify with)

73
Q

Sherif’s Realistic Conflict Theory

A

When there is competition for limited resources conflict will automatically arise

74
Q

Sherif’s Camp Study (Robber’s Cave Study)

A

20 boys randomly assigned to one of two groups at camp.

Stage 1: Build-in groups
Stage 2: Conflict between groups
Stage 3: Integration/cooperation

75
Q

Social Traps

A
  1. Illustrates the benefits and costs of cooperation
  2. Each player receives benefits whose size depends on whether they cooperate
  3. If both parties rationally pursue self-interest, they could win nothing
  4. If one party cooperates, and the other doesn’t, the one who doesn’t reaps a large benefit
76
Q

One-shot Prisoner’s Dilemma Game

A
  1. 2 prisoners must decide between silence and confession
  2. Both silent=both get relatively short prison sentences
  3. Both confess=both get moderate prison sentences
  4. One confesses=confessor gets no sentence, partner gets very long sentence
  5. No communication between players until both have chosen
77
Q

Factors that contribute to attraction

A

Proximity–the mere exposure effect–repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking for them, or, we like people we see often

78
Q

Big Black Bag Study

A
  1. Professor had a volunteer come to class wrapped in a large black bag
  2. No one knew who he/she was and they could only see his or her feet
  3. Sat in class every day for two months
  4. Professor measured the other students’ attitude towards the person in the bag
79
Q

The Attractiveness Bias

A
  1. Physically attractive people are rated higher on intelligence, competence, sociability, morality studies
80
Q

The baby-face bias

A

People with rounder heads, large eyes, small jawbones, etc. rates as more naive, honest, helpless, kind, and warm than mature-faced. Generalize to animals, women, and babies

81
Q

Do opposites attract?

A

People are drawn to others that seem like themselves. Friends and couples are more likely to be much more similar in attitudes, interests, age, race, religion, intelligence

82
Q

Lake Wobegon Effect

A

70% of women claimed ‘above average’ looks, including 24 percent claiming ‘very good looks’

The online men also were generous: 67% called themselves ‘above average’ including 21% with ‘very good looks’

This leaves only about 40% of the users with ‘average’ looks, including a paltry one per cent with ‘less than average’ looks

83
Q

Results of Dating Study

A

What hurts the most: not posting a photo!

Helps most: women, looks count most, men: money counts most, education helps everyone

84
Q

Social Comparison Theory in terms of groups

A

Social comparison theory tells us that one power the group has is informational power. More influential when evaluation is ambiguous or uncertain. This power can lead to conformity and private acceptance.

Psych 111 (10 decks)

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