Disorders and therapy Flashcards
1
Q
Psychological Causes: Learned Helplessness
A
- Efforts of controlling certain life events repeatedly fail
- May stop attempting to control those situations
- And, if this happens often enough, may generalize lack of power/control and not try even when you could have an effect
- Learned helplessness: expectation that you cannot control outcomes, so you become apathetic and depressed
2
Q
Depressive Explanatory style
A
Attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global factors
3
Q
Internal, stable, global
A
Internal: “It’s my fault”
Stable: “It will never change”
Global: “It’s going to ruin my life” (versus well, its just this one thing and its not going to affect everything else in my life)
4
Q
Explanatory Style and Depression
A
- Measured explanatory styles among first-year college students
- Two years later, those with negative style were more likely to experience a major or minor depressive disorder
5
Q
Depressive Cognition: Negative Biases
A
- Overgeneralizing
- Selective Abstraction
- Personalization
- Magnification and minimization
- Arbitrary inference
- Dichotomous thinking
6
Q
Overgeneralizing
A
Drawing global conclusions on basis of single fact
7
Q
Selective Abstraction
A
Focusing on some insignificant (negative) detail while ignoring more important aspects
8
Q
Personalization
A
Incorrectly taking responsibility for bad events in the world
9
Q
Magnification and minimization
A
Small bad events are exaggerated and good events minimized
10
Q
Arbitrary inference
A
Draw conclusions without evidence
11
Q
Dichotomous thinking
A
Seeing everything in extremes, black and white
12
Q
The vicious cycle of depression
A
Depression can lead to behaviors that cause social rejection, which worsens depression
- Biological causes –> depression–> social rejection–> negative life experiences–> depression again
13
Q
Bipolar Disorder (Manic-depresive)
A
- Extreme moods: Manic episodes and extreme depression mixed with normal mood
- Mania involves delusional levels of optimism, euphoria and energy. equally common in both sexes
- Sufferers make poor decisions while manic, withdraw when depressed. Dangers in both states.
14
Q
Two types of bipolar disorder
A
Bipolar I: More extreme manic state–sometimes with delusions or hallucinations
Bipolar II: Hypomania, no delusions
15
Q
Manic behavior
A
Emotional characteristics: Elation, euphoria, extreme sociability, expansiveness, impatience
Cognitive characteristics: Distractibility, desire for action, impulsiveness, talkativeness, grandiosity, inflated self-esteem
Motor characteristics: Hyperactivity, decreased for sleep, sexual indiscretion, fluctuating appetite
16
Q
Depressive behavior
A
Emotional characteristics: Gloominess, hopelessness, social withdrawal, irritability, indecisiveness
Cognitive characteristics: Slowness of thought, obsessive worrying about death, negative self-image, delusions of guilt, difficulty in concentrating
Motor characteristics: Decreased motor activity, fatigue, difficulty in sleeping, decreased in sex drive, decreased appetite
17
Q
True or false: Minor depression responds to same treatments as major depression
A
True
18
Q
Nine criteria for Major Depression (need 5)
A
- Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day
- Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the day
- Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain
- Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day
- Psychomotor agitation or lethargy
- Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day
- Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt
- diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day
- Recurrent thoughts of death, recurrent social ideation
19
Q
Dysthymia
A
- More chronic, low intensity mood disorder
- By definition, symptoms must be present>2 years consecutively
- It is characterized by anhedonia, low self-esteem and low energy
- It tends to respond to medication and psychotherapy
- Long-term psychotherapy is frequently able to bring about lasting change in dysthymic individuals
20
Q
Seasonal Affective Disorder
A
- Results from changes in the season. Most cases begin in the fall or winter, or when there is a decrease in sunlight
- Pattern of onset at the same time each year
- Full remissions occur at a characteristic time of year
21
Q
Suicide Facts
A
- Major risk in depression. The majority of suicide victims are suffering from depression
- 10-14% of those who attempt suicide will eventually succeed in a later attempt
- Suicide rates are highest among the elderly (health problems)
- Most suicidal people leave clues of their intentions
- Most suicidal people have not made a definite decision to die
- Suicide is less frequent for married people and women with children
22
Q
Schizophrenia
A
- “Split-brain/split-mind”
- Found in all cultures
- Affects men and women (almost) equally)
- About 1% of Americans affected in lifetime
- Age of onset:
19-25 men
24-25 women
23
Q
Burden of Schizophrenia: Disability and premature death
A
- 8th leading cause of disability-adjusted life years worldwide
- Reduces a person’s life span by 10 years
- 30% of schizophrenia attempt suicide at least once in their lifetime
- About 10% of patients die by suicide
24
Q
Burden of Schizophrenia: cost
A
- Psychotic disorders: most expensive mental illnesses in terms of costs of care/patient
- 1.5% (UK), 2% (the Netherlands, France), and 2.5% (USA) of national health expenditures
25
Major Schizophrenia Symptoms
Incoherent thinking: rambling from one topic to another
Delusions: false beliefs
Hallucinations: Sensory Experiences in the absence of actual stimulation
Disturbance of Affect: emotion/facial expressions
Bizarre Behavior
26
Common delusions
1. Mind is controlled by evil forces
2. Thoughts being broadcast out loud and other people can hear what you are thinking
3. Delusions of grandeur
4. Delusions of persecution
27
Hallucinations
1. Often auditory (report hearing voices)
2. Can be other senses as well
28
Disturbance of Affect
1. Emotion, mood, facial expressions
2. "Flat" affect, show no emotion, blank expression
3. Exaggerated or inappropriate emotions
29
Bizarre behaviors
1. Talk to themselves
2. Frozen in place (catatonic state)
3. Walk in circles
30
Positive symptoms
Cognitive, emotional, and behavioral excesses
31
Example of positive symptoms
1. Hallucinations (69%)
2. Delusions (84%)
3. Though disorders (43%)
4. Bizarre behaviors (26%)
32
Negative symptoms
Cognitive, emotional, and behavioral deficits
33
Examples of negative symptoms
1. Apathy (90%)
2. Flattened Affect (88%)
3. Social withdrawal (88%)
4. Inattention (66%)
5. Slowed speech or no speech (53%)
34
Paranoid Schizophrenia Types
1. Delusions and auditory hallucinations
2. Delusions of grandeur or of persecution
3. Suspicion and hostility
4. Usually harmless, but may become violent if threatened
35
Catatonic Schizophrenia
1. Periods of frenzied activity alternating with periods of immobility
2. May stay in odd positions for hours
36
Disorganized Schizophrenia
1. Inappropriate affect and actions
2. Incoherent verbal behavior
3. Illogical thinking
37
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
Used to characterize cases with mixed or unusual symptoms
38
Residual schizophrenia
Prior episodes not currently experiencing symptoms
39
Causes of Schizophrenia
1. Genetics
2. Neurotransmitter and Brain abnormalities
3. Diathesis-Stress model (Vulnerability Stress Model)
40
Childhood Data on Schizophrenia
1. Studies have looked at childhood of people who were later diagnosed with schizophrenia
2. Walker 1994, studied home movies of infancy to adulthood. Found more involuntary movements, such as writhing, involuntary movements of tongue, lip, or arm. Also were unhappier than unaffected siblings
3. Cannon, 1999, school records. Okay academically, but worse at sports and craft activities (motor problem?)
4. Psychology grad students were shown home movies of affected children and unaffected siblings, 78% guessed correctly
41
Causes: Dopamine Hypothesis (Schizophrenia)
1. Brain circuits sensitive to dopamine have abnormally high levels of activity. Cause could be excess of dopamine, over-sensitivity of dopamine receptors, etc.
42
Evidence of a Dopamine hypothesis
1. Antipsychotic drugs, block dopamine receptors
2. Increasing dopamine makes symptoms worse (Davis, 1974)
3. Overdose of amphetamines: causes paranoid schizophrenia-like symptoms
43
Brain abnormalities and schizophrenia
Some schizophrenics have:
1. Low frontal activity
2. Undersize hippocampus, amygdala, or thalamus
3. Larger than normal ventricles
44
Schizophrenia: A brain disorder
1. Pairs of identical twins, discordant (one schizophrenic and the other normal)
2. Schizophrenics had enlarged ventricles compared to normal sibling
45
The Vulnerability-Stress View of Schizophrenia
Genetic abnormalities lead to biochemical abnormalities, which can result in a physiological predisposition towards schizophrenia. In such a situation, environmental stressors can trigger the behavior patterns of schizophrenia
46
Personality Disorders
1. Disorder in which person has highly inflexible and maladaptive personality
2. 10% of population. Self-defeating patterns of behavior
3. Controversy: Are some labels just "pathologizing" variations of personality
47
Schizoid personality
Socially isolated, emotional detached
48
Paranoid personality
overly sensitive and suspicious
49
Histrionic personality
melodramatic and attention seeking
50
Narcissistic personality
Self-centered and ego inflated
51
Obsessive-compulsive personality
perfectionist (not same as having OCD)
52
Avoidant personality
Fears rejection so much that he/she does not start new relationships
53
Cluster A Personality Disorders
Paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders. Individuals with these disorders often appear odd or eccentric
54
Cluster B Personality Disorders
Antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders. Individuals with these disorders often appear dramatic, emotional, or erratic
55
Cluster C personality
Avoidant, dependent, obsessive compulsive personality disorders. Appear anxious and fearful
56
Paranoid personality (cluster A)
1. Guarded, defensive, distrustful, and suspicious
2. Hypervigilant to the motives of others to undermine or do harm
3. Always seekign confirmatory evidence of hidden schemes
4. People with paranoid personality disorder experience a pattern of pervasive distrust and suspicion of others that lasts a long time
5. They are generally difficult to work with and are very hard to form relationships with
57
Schizoid personality disorder (Cluster A)
1. Apathetic, indifferent, remote, solitary, distant, humorless
2. Neither desire nor need human attachments
3. Withdrawn from relationships and prefer to be alone
4. Little interest in others, often seen as a loner
5. Minimal awareness of the feelings of themselves or others
6. Few drives or ambitions, if any
7. Is an uncommon condition in which people avoid social activities and consistently shy away from interaction with others. It affects more males than femaled
58
Schizotypal personality disorder (Cluster A)
1. Eccentric, self-estranged, bizarre, absent
2. Exhibit peculiar mannerisms and behaviors
3. Think they can read thoughts of others
4. Preoccupied with odd daydreams and beliefs
5. Blur line between reality and fantasy
6. Magical thinking and strange beliefs
7. People with schizotypal personality disorder are often described as odd or eccentric and usually have few, if any, close relationships
59
Histrionic personality disorder (Cluster B)
1. Dramatic, seductive, shallow, stimulus seeking, vain
2. Overreact to minor events
3. Exhibitionistic as a means of securing attention and favors
4. See themselves as attractive and charming
5. Constantly seeking others' attention
6. Disorder is characterized by constant attention-seeking, emotional overreaction, and suggestibility
60
Narcissistic Personality Disorder (Cluster B)
1. Egotistical, arrogant, grandiose
2. Preoccupied with fantasies of success, beauty, or achievement
3. See themselves as admirable and superior, and therefore entitled to special treatment
4. Is a mental disorder which people have inflated sense of their own importance and a deep need for admiration
5. Believe that they're superior to others and have little regard for other people's feelings
61
Avoidant Personality Disorder (Cluster C)
1. Hesitant, self-conscious, embarrassed, anxious
2. Tense in social situations due to fear of rejection
3. Plagued by constant performance anxiety
4. See themselves as inept, inferior, or unappealing
5. They experience long-standing feelings of inadequacy and are very sensitive of what others think about them
62
Dependent Personality Disorder (cluster C)
1. Helpless, incompetent, submissive, immature
2. Withdrawn from adult responsibilities
3. See themselves as weak or fragile
4. Seek constant reassurance from stronger figures
5. They have the need to be taken care of by a person
6. They fear being abandoned or separated from important people in their life
63
Obsessive-compulsive Personality (Cluster C)
1. Restrained, conscientious, respectful, rigid
2. Maintain a rule-bound lifestyle
3. Adhere closely to social conventions
4. See the world in terms of regulations and hierarchies
5. See themselves as devoted, reliable, efficient, and productive
64
Boderline Personality
1. Instability of self-image, mood and social relationships
2. Very common (about 3% of people)
3. About 2/3 are women
4. People claim that marilyn monroe had borderline personality disorder
65
Some symptoms of BPD
1. Complain of being tired or bored, don't like to be left alone, desperate for the company of others
2. "Clingy", relationships often don't last
3. Impulsive, get into fights, run away, jump into bed with strangers etc.
4. Commit self-destructive acts to get attention
5. Study of 57 BPD cases, found 42 suicide threats, 40 overdoes, 38 cases of drug abuse, 26 acts of self mutilation (pulling out hair, burn self with cigarettes, slash wrists, etc.) 14 car accidents caused by reckless driving
66
Antisocial personality (cluster B)
1. Chronic pattern of self-centered, manipulative, destructive behavior towards others
- 80% are men
- may become involved in criminal activity
- 47% of male prisoners have antisocial personality disorder
67
Features of Antisocial personality
1. Superficial charm, and intelligence
2. Poise, rationality
3. Lack of sense of personal responsibility
4. Untruthfulness, insincerity, manipulation of others
5. Antisocial behavior without regret or shame
6. Failure to learn from experience
7. Inability to establish lasting, close relations with others
8. Lack of insight into personal motivations
68
Antisocial Personality Test
1. Love is just a four letter word
2. People find me very charming
3. People who never lie are suckers
4. Feeling guilty is a waste of time
5. Most of my problems are due to the fact that people just don't understand me
6. I often do things just for the hell of it
7. I keep finding myself in the same difficulties time are time
69
Possible causes of Antisocial personality disorder
1. Upbringing, faulty role models?
2. Physiology: Less excitable, not easily startled?
3. Less physiologically aroused by pain, shock, etc.
4. Impulse control problems, can't 'reign in' their desires or emotions
70
ADHD
A psychological disorder marked by extreme inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity
71
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
1. A cognitive and social-emotional disorder that is marked by social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors
2. Once believed to affect 1 in 2500 children (and referred to simply as autism) ASD is now diagnosed in 1 in 38 children in South Korea, 1 in 59 in the United States
3. The increase in ASD diagnoses has been offset by a decrease in the number of children with a 'cognitive disability' or 'learning disability' which suggests a relabeling of children's disorders
72
ASD: Impaired understanding of other people
1. The underlying source of ASD's symptoms seems to be poor communication among brain regions that normally work together to let us take another's viewpoint
2. People with ASD have an impaired theory of mind
3. Mind reading that most of us find intuitive (is that face conveying a smile or a sneer) is difficult for those with ASD
4. They have difficulty inferring and remembering others' thoughts and feelings, appreciating that playmates and parents might view things differently, and understanding that their teachers know more than they do
73
Philippe Pinel and Dorthea Dix
Founded humane movements to care for the mentally sick
74
Trephination
1. Earliest Brain Surgery (as early as 6,500 B.C.)
2. Hole drilled in patients skull
3. Evil spirits? Treat epilepsy, migraines, and mental disorders?
4. May also have been used to treat brain injuries (from warfare, or accidents)
75
Case 26: Extreme Agitation
1. Patient experienced insomnia, nervousness, depression
2. Went through experimental surgery
3. After surgery: blank expression and said she felt better but she essentially got frontal lobe syndrome
76
Frontal Lobotomy
1. Portions of the frontal lobe are separated from connecting areas
2. Emotionally they were less distressed
3. But they were causing frontal lobe syndrome
4. Effects ability to plan ahead, motivation, personality, ability to concentrate and solve difficult problems, less agitated but they don't have good control over their emotions
77
Psychopharmacology
1. Study of the effects of drugs on psychological processes and disorders
2. Many (all?) of the drugs developed to treat psychological disorders affect neurotransmitter activity
3. Various specific methods of action
78
The synapse
1. Terminals don't touch
2. "Synaptic gap"
3. Chemical message
- axon releases
- dendrite picks it up
79
What would happen if a patient has "too little" of a neurotransmitter?
1. Drug can mimic effects of a NT (activate same receptors)
2. Drug can interfere with re-uptake of NT
3. Drug can interfere with enzymes and deactivate NT
4. Increase availability with some precursor molecules
80
What would happen if the patient has "too much" of a NT?
1. Drug can block receptors for NT
2. Or speed-up reuptake, or speed-up breakdown, or decrease available precursor molecules
81
Function of Acetylcholine (ACH)
Enables muscle action, learning, and memory
82
Malfunctions of ACH
Undersupply, as ACH-producing neurons deteriorate, marks Alzheimer's disease
83
Function of Dopamine
Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion
84
Malfunctions of dopamine
Excess dopamine receptor activity linked to schizophrenia; starved of dopamine, the brain produces the tremors and decreased mobility of parkinson's disease
85
Function of serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
86
Malfunctions of Serotonin
Undersupply linked to depression; prozac and some other antidepressant drugs raise serotonin levels
87
Function of Norepinephrine
Helps control alertness and arousal
88
Malfunction of Norepinephrine
Undersupply can depress mood
89
GABA
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter
90
Malfunction of GABA
Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
91
Function of Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
92
Malfunction of glutamate
Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines and seizures (which is why people avoid MSG, monosodium glutamate in food)
93
What does prozac do?
Prozac blocks normal reuptake of neurotransmitter serotonin; excess serotonin in synapse enhances its mood-lifting effect
94
Anti-Anxiety Medication: Benzodiazepines
Alleviate anxiety in increasing levels of the neurotransmitter GABA, which inhibits the transmission of nerve impulses in the brain which reduces brain activity
95
What are some side effects of anti-anxiety medication?
1. Negative interaction with alcohol
2. Decreased coordination and motor function
3. Risk of psychological or physiological dependence
96
Early antidepressants
MAO inhibitors and tricyclics increase the availability of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin at synpases
97
What were the problems with early antidepressants?
Weight gain, dizziness, dry mouth and eyes, sedation, as well as in the case of MAO's, dietary interactions that could be fatal
98
Antidepressants: SSRI's
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) target the neurotransmitter serotonin alone
- SSRIs tend to have fewer side effects than earlier generations of anti-depressants, although potential side effects include headaches, difficulty sleeping, and sexual dysfunction
99
Mood Stabilizers
They are used in treatment of bipolar depression. Calms the mania; and reduces bipolar mood swings
100
Lithium for bipolar
1. Mineral, found in natural sources like rocks, plants, etc
2. Side effects
- weight gain
- fatigue
- tremors
3. If dosage is too high it could be life threatening
4. They don't know how lithium works
101
ECT (Electro-convulsive therapy)
Electric-shock treatments used for severe depression.
Patient receives electric shocks that induces brain
seizures.
In early days were lots of negative side effects, like
muscle spasms so severe that patient would have
broken bones.
Still has bad reputation.
Today, lots of improvements and is really effective
for some patients.
102
What is ECT used for?
ECT is used for severely depressed patients who do not respond to drugs. The patient is anesthetized and given a muscle relaxant. Patients usually get a 100 volt shock that relieves them of depression
103
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Application of repeated magnetic energy pulses to the brain to suppress or stimulate activity in certain areas
104
Behavioral Perspective on Therapy
Retrain maladaptive patterns of behavior
105
Cognitive Perspective on Therapy
Replace maladaptive thought patterns with more adaptive
106
Psychodynamic perspective on therapy
Help to become aware of underlying conflicts
107
Client-centered (humanistic) perspective on therapy
Help patient achieve self-actualization
108
What are behavioral therapies based on?
Classical conditioning and Operant Conditioning. They focus on changing behavior. Disorders consist of maladaptive behaviors that have been learned and can be unlearned
109
Behavioral therapy basic concepts
1. Select small number of specific goals
2. Ignore the "Why"
3. Little discussion of thoughts/dreams, etc.
4. Emphasis on measurable outcomes
5. Very successful for fast change
110
What is the goal of Behavioral Therapy?
To develop flexible patterns of behavior sensitive to the environment; change behavior
111
Counterconditioning (behavioral/classical conditioning)
Uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors
112
Exposure therapies (behavioral/classical conditioning)
Treat anxieties/phobias by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid
113
Systemic desensitization (behavioral/classical conditioning)
Associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing, anxiety-triggering stimuli
114
Aversion Theory
1. Form of counterconditioning used especially to treat unwanted habits or harmful behaviors
2. An unwanted state is associated with an unwanted behavior, gradually replacing the previous positive response
115
Cognitive Therapy
The person's emotional reactions are produced not directly by the event by the person's thoughts in response to the event
116
What is the goal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)
Symptom-reduction and improved quality of life; replacement of maladaptive responses with adaptive ones; long-term maintenance of positive effects. Classical Conditioning Principles of Treatment Skill - Reinforcement-Based Strategies: self-monitoring, relaxation, behavioral rehearsal, problem-solving training
117
Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT)
1. Focus on harmful patterns of behavior (self-harm, substance abuse)
2. Modified form of CBT
3. Four modules
- mindfulness
- distress tolerance
- emotion regulation
- interpersonal effectiveness
118
Boderline Personality Disorder
1. Emotionally unstable personality disorder
2. long-term pattern of unstable relationships with others yourself and emotions
3. Extreme fear of abandonment, frequent dangerous behavior, emptiness, and self-harm
4. Symptoms may be brought on by seemingly normal events, behavior typically begins by early adulthood, and occurs across a variety of situations
5. Substance abuse, depression, and eating disorders are commonly associated with BPD
119
DBT Mindfulness
This is the practice of being fully aware and focused in the present instead of worrying about the past or future
120
DBT Distress Tolerance
This involves understanding and managing your emotions in difficult or stressful situations without responding with harmful behaviors
121
DBT Interpersonal effectiveness
The means understanding how to ask for what you want and need and setting boundaries while maintaining respect for yourself and others
122
DBT Emotional regulation
This means understanding, being more aware of and having more control over your emotions
123
Freudian Therapy: Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basis defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
124
Freudian Therapy: Resistance
In psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety laden material
125
What did Freud use to get at the unconscious mind?
Hypnosis, free association, dream analysis, analysis of chilhood
126
What is the role of the Freudian Therapist?
Interpretation, transference, counter transfere
127
Freud: Interpretation
Therapist has an active role, and has to help the patient gain insight by interpreting dreams, patient history, repression etc.
128
Freud: Transference
In psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)
129
Freud: Counter transference
Therapist transfers emotions to the patient
130
Psychodynamic Therapy
The descendants of Freud. More modern version of psychoanalysis. Don't talk about things like ID and the Ego
131
What does psychodynamic therapy still focus on?
1. The role of the unconscious mind
2. Helping patients gain insight
3. Importance of childhood experiences
4. Defense mechanisms
132
Humanistic Therapies
1. Person-centered therapy: Carl Rogers
2. Rogers believed that therapist was not there to tell patient what to do, or to "cure" that person
3. People know what's best for themselves. Therapist is just a 'facilitator"
133
What should a therapist do according to Rogerian Humanistic Therapy?
1. Show unconditional positive regard
2. Create a warm and caring relationship
3. Be a facilitator of growth
4. Use reflection
5. Active listening
134
Group Therapy
1. Works well with most types of therapy
2. Money-saving
3. The social laboratory
4. Others feel this, too "I'm not alone"
5. Feedback on behaviors
6. Self-help (support) groups
7. Varying demands/levels of commitment
135
Effectiveness: Placebo Effect
1. Large percentage of individual with anxiety, depression, and other emotional disorders experience significant improvement after placebo treatment
2. Improvement may occur also due to regression to the mean, natural improvement that would have happened without intervention
136
Flooding
a psychological technique that involves exposing someone to a fear-inducing stimulus at maximum intensity, without warning, and without allowing them to escape
137
Biomedical Therapies: Effectiveness
1. Several types of psychotrophic drugs have proven useful in the treatment of various psychological disorders
2. However, the actual effectivesness of many drugs, especially antidepressants, is debated by psychologists and others
138
Free Association
A therapeutic technique in psychoanalysis that involves sharing thoughts, words, and feelings without censorship
139
Meta-Analysis
A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different studies
