Psych - Development Flashcards
How are identical twins more alike than fraternal twins?
Personality traits such as extraversion (sociability) and neuroticism (emotional instability
Behaviors/outcomes such as the rate of divorce is much higher
Abilities such as intelligence test scores (almost a .9 correlation between IQ test scores of identical twins)
Are adopted children more like their genetic relatives or their adoptive parents?
Adopted children seem to be more similar to their genetic relatives than their environmental/nurture relatives
Is it nature or nurture?
It’s a mix of both and interactive. What needs to be done is to try to figure out how the interplay of genes and environments plays out for each ability. How is this ability learned or how is this innate knowledge/ability built into the brain.
How are infants not tabula rasa (blank slate)?
People used to think that infants were blank slates, had to learn everything. Come into the world with lots of preferences and nascent (underdeveloped) abilities. These innate abilities guide and structure learning: allow children to learn.
What are some methods for studying infant’s knowledge?
Infants looking time studies:
- Give infants a choice of looking at two or more things.
- measure what they look at longer
- Assumption is that infants will look at things they find novel or interesting more than old, boring things
- Test for ability to perceive differences as well as for preferences
What are some visual preferences in newborns?
Infants spend more time looking at patterns than solids.
Infants spend the most time looking at a drawing of a human face.
Is this just preference for complexity?
Main ideas from Johnson study about Newborns and Human faces
Infants were shown a blank shape, a proper face, or scrambled facial features.
Proper face and scrambled face have the same complexity.
Infants looked more intensely at the proper face.
What are the discoveries from Mark Johnson’s Theory of Development Face Recognition Abilities
Two components, one innate, one that learns
Subcortical system has sketchy knowledge of what face should look like. Cortical system can learn about faces.
How they work together. Innate knowledge in subcortical system causes infants to focus on faces. Then, the cortical system is able to learn a lot about faces.
Subcortical system
Sketchy knowledge of what face should look like
Cortical system
Can learn about faces
Where is innate knowledge for infants about faces stored?
Subcortical system
How does the cortical system work for infants?
The cortical system is able to learn a lot about faces
Imprinting
Special kind of learning, automatic and rapid. Way of making sure that they stick to their mom after hatching.
What is an example of imprinting?
Chicks, ducklings, geese will imprint on their mother, form an attachment and follow mom around.
Johnson demonstrated that…
Chicks seem to have some innate knowledge of chicken faces. After chicks hatch, give them a choice of two moving objects.
General study of Johnson and imprinting with ducks
Chicks seem to have some innate knowledge of chicken faces. After chicks hatch, give them a choice of two moving objects. Varied properties of these objects to see what exactly what the chick prefers. For example, a red box vs. a stuffed chicken or just chicken parts (head and neck). Prefer bird head and neck in proper configuration. Actually prefer just chicken’s head and neck to the whole hen.
What did Lesioning studies show?
Where the innate knowledge is stored in the brain. Lesion this area and preference for chicken head/neck is gone. A different area of brain does the learning (and stores the knowledge of mother’s face). Lesion subcortical area after chick has a chance to imprint, chick can still recognize its mother.
So is it innate or is learned for chicks?
Its BOTH. some minimal, innate knowledge that focuses the attention of the infant (or chicken) and guides learning. Knowledge of shape of head/neck of hen. For human babies knowledge of oval shaped face with 2 eyes and a mouth. AND another system (cortex) that learns the specifics of important faces from exposure to those stimuli.
What is the Infant as Intuitive Physicist?
Infants look longer at objects that seem to violate physical laws than those that do not. Surprise indicates that their expectations were violated. They must know what is physically plausible for this to occur.
Can infants add and subtract?
Show the baby the same array many times. Show the array with an element missing (shown) or one added. Surprise indicates that her or his expectations were violated.
What can infants do?
- Motor reflexes (rooting, grasping)
- Perceptual preferences eg. faces
- Auditory: “Motherese” (higher pitch, exaggerated intonation)
- Basic emotions, facial expressions
- Ability to imitate facial gestures?
- Knowledge of physical world?
- Add/subract?
What is assimilation?
Filtering experience to fit thought
What is accommodation?
Changing thought to fit experience
What is assimilation in terms of Piaget’s theory?
The process whereby the environment is interpreted in terms of existing cognitive structures (schemas).
What is accommodation in terms of Piagets Theory?
The process whereby the existing cognitive structure is changed to reflect the environment
What is the relationship between assimilation and accommodation according to Piaget?
There is tension between assimilation and accommodation
What are Piaget’s stages of development?
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete Operational
- Formal Operational
What is the sensorimotor stage?
Ages 0-2, The child begins to interact with the environment.
The child begins to understand the world through senses and motor actions. Develop object object permanence.
What is the preoperational stage?
Ages 2-7. The child begins to represent the world symbolically.
Start of this period is marked by developing the ability to think in verbal symbols or words. Lacks “adult reasoning” key deficit is called the principle of conservation. Thinking is egocentric.
Egocentricism
Inability of the preoperational child to take another’s point of view.
What is the three mountain test?
A preoperational child is unable to describe the “mountains” from the doll’s point of view - an indication of egocentrism, according to Piaget.
Principle of Conservation
Understanding that an underlying physical dimension remains unchanged despite superficial shifts in its appearance.
Conservation of Substance
Two identical balls of clay, one is deformed. “do the two pieces have the same amount of clay” Children in the preoperational stage can’t understand this yet.
Conservation of Number
Two identical rows of pennies, one row is rearranged, “do the two rows have the same number of pennies”
Concrete Operational Stage
Ages 7-11 or 12. The child learns such as conservation.
Can do logical operations. Understand reversibility: pour water in one cup, then back. Can do conservation and classification tasks.
Formal Operational Stage
Ages 12-adulthood. The adolescent can transcend concrete situations and think about the future.
Can do abstract and hypothetical reasoning. Can reason contrary to experience. Found only in people’s areas of expertise.
Criticism of Piaget
- He underestimated children’s abilities.
- Object permanence: before 8-9 months children supposedly lack object permanence so if something is out of sight, its out of mind. But some studies seem to show that kids have knowledge of objects even if they can’t see or touch them .
Examples of the critiques of Piaget in kids.
Egocentrism: if asked to show mommy a picture, 2-3 year olds will turn the picture the correct way.
Conservation: When children play a game where the “number” determines the winner, they are not thrown off by changes in the spacing.
More criticisms of Piaget: Are there really “stages”
The behaviors that emerge in a stage are consistent with each other. In the sensory motor stage, object permanence and stranger anxiety go together. Similarly, in the Preoperational stage, children fail to conserve numbers, mass, and volume. Second, stages tend to be discrete (relatively abrupt transitions) rather than continuous.
Attachment
A deep emotional bond that an infant develops with its caretaker. Not as automatic as imprinting! No critical period!
What did psychologists believe about infants and attachment?
Psychologists initially assumed infants would attach to anyone who feeds them and satisfies basic needs.
Primary Drives Theory
Attachment results from associating the satisfaction of primary drives with the being who satisfies (hunger etc.)
What was Harlow’s Study?
Tested primary drives theory on monkeys. 2 surrogate mothers, one wire and one cloth. Monkey was very attached to the cloth mother
Schanberg and Field on the applications of Harlow’s work
- Contact important for premature babies
- Two groups of premature babies
Group 1: held for 45 minutes a day for 10 days. Group 1 was more alert, active, gained 47% more weight, left hospital six days earlier.
Attachment
Attachment has important survival value. Has species-specific forms. Triggered by releaser stimuli.
When does Stranger Anxiety begin?
Begins at around 6 months of age, younger kids are not afraid. Peaks at about 1 year and then declines. Occurs in all cultures. Greatest in unfamiliar settings.
Secure Attachment
A parent-infant relationship in which the baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion
Insecure Resistant Attachment
Baby clings to the parent, cries at separation, and reacts with anger to reunion
Insecure Avoidant Attachment
Doesn’t care if mom leaves, doesn’t react when she returns.
Ainsworth view: secure attachment
Securely attached kids use caretaker as a secure base (can explore world in safety with mom around)
Ainsworth view: Resistant Insecure attachment
Resistant infants first seek and then avoid caretaker (hot and cold).
Ainsworth’s View: Avoidant attachment
Avoidant infants are not attached at all
When is parental responsiveness the highest?
In securely attached kids
What are the general ideas from Bowlby’s theory?
Attachment experiences influence perceptions of others and later social relationships. May fail to thrive if attachment is absent. May fail to develop other social bonds. Tend to reproduce same pattern in other relationships.
Harlow’s Monkey’s (Again): What happened when Monkey’s were deprived of their mothers for 1 year?
Longer periods of deprivation had major effects: monkeys huddle in the corner of the cage, rock back and forth.
What happened when Harlow’s Monkey’s when they were reunited with the same age normally reared monkeys?
Didn’t play, they would withdraw and huddle, rock, and bite themselves
What happened to the monkeys as adult abnormalities persisted?
The monkey’s became incompetent at parental and sexual interactions. Some cases, as mothers, they abused their children
What happened with the monkeys when they put in a therapist monkey?
Deprived monkeys of mothers for 6 months. Then, put 3 month younger monkey in cage with them as a therapist. At first they avoided the younger monkey, but the “therapist” kept trying to play with them. Eventually, deprived monkey interacted with little friend and after 6 months recovered normal behaviors.
What happened to deprived females who became mothers?
Acted abnormally with first child but many recovered when they had a second child. Treated second child normally. Perhaps, the first child acted like the “therapist” and helped the mothers recover.
Delay of gratification
The ability to resist the temptation for an immediate reward and wait for a later reward.
What is the delay of gratification linked to?
Academic success. Physical and psychological health, social skills, patience, will power, self control
Adolescent Cognition
In formal operational stage.
Grasp theoretical math.
Understand abstractions: religious and political philosophy.
Decipher metaphors and analogies
Imaginary audience
The strong focus on self leads adolescents to feel that everyone else is focused on them as well.
Personal fable
Adolescents assume their thoughts and feelings are unique (no one has ever loved so deeply, etc.)
Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg
Resolving Ethical Dilemmas
Presents subject with dilemma, asked to reason it out.
Found 3 stages of moral reasoning (with sub-stages get 6)
Big changes in adolescence.
Kohlberg’s Theory: Pre-conventional level
Pre-conventional Level:
Stage 1 –> Punishment avoidance is “right”. example you could get caught and go to jail
Stage 2–> Whatever benefits the individual is “right” Example, it won’t do any good because his wife will die before he gets the drug (sort of egocentric?)
Kohlberg’s Theory: Conventional Level
Stage 3: Behavior that pleases others is “right”
Example, he shouldn’t steal because others will think he is a thief
Stage 4: Authorities and rules determines what’s right
Example no one is allowed to steal, so why should he?
Kohlberg’s theory: post-conventional level
Stage 5–> protecting both society and individual is “right”
example, laws are basis for a civilized society and they have to be respected.
Stage 6–> Universal principles determine “right” (only 5-10% of people). example of higher principle of saving a life outweighs the wrong of stealing
What moral reasoning are the 7-10 year olds using?
Most 7-10 year olds are reasoning at the pre-conventional level
What moral reasoning are 13-16 year olds using?
Conventional level
How many subjects from 7-16 show post conventional type of reasoning?
Few subjects show the postconventional type of reasoning
Research on Kohlberg
Stages 1-4 seem universal and invariant in order
Stage 5 found in urban cultures, uncommon in tribal and village societies
Possible gender and cultural biases
Connection between moral reasoning and moral behavior is often indirect.
Description of infancy stage (trust v. mistrust)
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Infancy (1st year) - Trust v. mistrust
Toddler (2nd year) - Autonomy vs. shame
Preschooler (3-5) - Initiative v. guilt
Elementary (6 years-puberty) - competence v. inferiority
Adolescence (teens-20s) - Identity v. Role
Young Adult (20s-early 40s) Intimacy v. isolation
Middle Adult (40s-60s) Generativity v. stagnation
Late Adult (late 60s and up) - integrity v. despair
Description of toddler stage (autonomy v. shame and doubt)
Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities
Description of Preschooler stage (initiative vs. guilt)
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent
Description of Elementary stage (competence vs. inferiority)
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
Description of Adolescence Stage (identity v. role confusion)
Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.
Description of young adult (intimacy v. isolation)
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated
Description of Middle adult (Generativity v. stagnation)
The middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and word, or they may feel a lack of purpose.
Description of Late Adult (integrity v. despair)
When reflecting on their life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.
What happens to crystallized intelligence is adulthood?
One’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. Tends to increase with age
What happens to fluid intelligence in adulthood?
Ones ability to reason speedily and abstractly. Tends to decrease during late adulthood.
What skills are preserved with age?
Verbal intelligence scores hold steady with age, while nonverbal intelligence scores decline
What did Langer and Rodin study?
Studied the effects of different types of communication on the behavior of nursing home residents.
What did Langer and Rodin hypothesize?
Hypothesized that environmental changes associated with old age lead to feelings of loss, inadequacy and low self-esteem among the elderly
Why do people like to feel in control?
People like to feel in control, even if they don’t usually use that power.
Rodin example of people in the elevator and control
People in a crowded elevator feel less anxiety if they are standing near the control panel.
General idea of the study of exposing people to loud noises as they did problem solving tasks
One group had no control over the noises.
Other group had a button they could push to stop the noise (but they were asked to try not to use it)
No one actually used the stop noise button, but subjects without the feeling of control (no button group) performed much worse on the task
What happened with the responsive nursing group when they received choices?
Responsibility induced group (ones that got to choose where to put things, what to eat etc): happier, more active, more alert.
They had better ratings by staff and better health assessment by doctors.
30% of comparison group had died, but only 15% of the responsibility group.
What do parents and teens fight the most about?
Chores, interpersonal relationships, and regulating activities the most. The least were health hygiene, and appearance
