Psych/Soc Missed Questions Flashcards
(241 cards)
1
Q
Describe the different types of intelligence.
A
crystallized: solving problems using previous experience or already-acquired intelligence
emotional: understanding the emotions of others and oneself
practical: ability to adapt to everyday environments and solve issues that arise in everyday life
fluid: ability to reason abstractly and solve new problems through logic
2
Q
What is stereotype threat?
A
individuals feel at risk for confirming negative stereotypes about their social group
- causes anxiety which can impair cognitive function, focus, and decreased performance
3
Q
What is assimilation?
A
minority group conforms to practices, behaviors, and beliefs of the majority group
4
Q
What is cognitive dissonance?
A
individual has two conflicting thoughts or beliefs
5
Q
What is selection bias?
A
selection of a sample for a study is not done randomly
6
Q
What is a primary group?
A
family or close individuals
7
Q
What is social capital?
A
benefits gained from social networks
8
Q
What is Gardner’s Theory?
A
individuals have multiple different types of intelligences
9
Q
What is Social interactionist theory?
A
language is acquired due to desire to communicate with others + biological factors
- imitation
10
Q
What is Nativist theory?
A
language ability is inherent
11
Q
What is behaviorist theory?
A
language is learned through reinforcement, imitation, and conditioning, not through innate ability
12
Q
Describe the sleep stages.
A
4-6 cycles per night
NREM1: prominent in initial stages of falling asleep, light
- alpha waves transition into theta waves
NREM2: 50% of sleep cycle, intermediate sleep with spindles (bursts)/K-complexes (large, slow brain waves)
- consolidate memories
NREM3: deepest sleep stage, delta waves, decreased in later sleep cycles
- GH release, immune function
REM: vivid dreaming, wakeful brain activity, increases later in sleep cycle
- memory consolidation, emotional and cognitive recovery
13
Q
What is game theory?
A
rational people act according to their own self-interest
14
Q
What is altruism?
A
doing a good deed for someone else without any personal benefit or self-motive
15
Q
What is urbanization?
A
encroachment of urban areas on suburban or rural areas and the migration of previously suburban or rural people to the city
- increasing population density
- land being converted for urban use
16
Q
What is Demographic Transition Theory?
A
Stage 1: preindustrial society = high birth rate due to lack of BC/cultural norms, high death rate from disease/famine/poor sanitation/lack of medical knowledge, population growth minimum
- primitive
Stage 2: early industrial society = birth rate high, death rate declines due to improvements in healthcare, rapid increase in population growth (EXPLOSION)
- urbanization begins
Stage 3: late industrial society = birth rate begins to decline as society becomes more urbanized, death rate low, population growth slows down
- improved education, economic growth
Stage 4: post industrial society = birth rate and death rate are low and stable, population growth is 0
- highly industrialized economy, advanced healthcare, education access
17
Q
What is fundamental attribution error?
A
tendency to overemphasize personality traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining someone else’s behavior
ex) someone cuts you off, you assume they’re rude instead of in a hurry
18
Q
What is conflict theory?
A
society is made up of groups with competing interests, leading to conflict and inequality
- Karl Marx
social power is maintained through power, coercion, and inequality, not by consensus
- change comes by conflict
19
Q
What is functionalism?
A
society is a complex system made up of interconnected parts, each serving a function to maintain social stability and order
- cohesive whole achieved through consensus
20
Q
What is a maladaptive strategy?
A
coping mechanism or behavior that ultimately harms a person’s well-being
- unhealthy way to deal with stress or difficult situations
ex) substance abuse, avoidance, procrastination, self-harm, emotional suppression
21
Q
What is groupthink?
A
occurs when a group prioritizes conformity over independent thinking, resulting in flawed decisions
22
Q
What is symbolic interactionism?
A
construct meaning through communication (interaction) with others
- attaching meaning to symbols
23
Q
What is the self-serving bias?
A
tendency to attribute one’s successes to dispositional attributes while attributing one’s failures to the situation
24
Q
What is Erikson’s Model of Psychosocial Development?
A
- trust vs. mistrust (infancy: 0-1 years)
- autonomy vs. shame and doubt (early childhood: 1-3 years)
- confidence - initiative vs. guilt (preschool: 3-6 years)
- leadership - Industry vs. inferiority (6-12 years)
- competence + achievement - identity vs. role confusion (12-18 years)
- strong sense of self/purpose - intimacy vs. isolation (18-40)
- strong relationships - generativity vs. stagnation (40-65 years)
- productivity - integrity vs. despair (65+)
- fulfilment
25
Describe the difference in memory.
sensory: lasts 1 second; filtering and prioritizing of all sensory input
- iconic: visual
- echoic: auditory
short-term: few seconds to few minutes; 5-9 pieces of information
working: more active STM; holds all of the information that a person is actively using at a certain time
- problem-solving, reasoning, comprehension
long-term: storing info over hours to lifetime; unlimited capacity
1) explicit (declarative) memory: conscious recall
- episodic memory: personal experience and events
- semantic memory: general knowledge and facts
2) implicit memory: unconscious memories like skills and habits
1) procedural memory: motor skills and actions
2) conditioned response: memories formed through classical conditioning
3) emotional/reflexive
26
What is group polarization?
tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than an individual would make
27
What is the self-discrepancy theory?
each of us has 3 selves and that perceived differences between these lead to negative feelings
- actual self: the way we see ourselves
- ideal self: person we would like to be
- ought self: the way others think we should be
28
What is inclusive fitness theory?
number of offspring and their ability to protect AND raise its offspring so that they become productive members of social structure
29
What is Seyle's general adaptation syndrome?
short-term and long-term adaptation to stress
1. alarm stage: activates fight or flight
2. resistance stage: if stressor persists, body continues to release hormones, but at reduced rate
3. exhaustion stage: stressor persists for too long, body's resources are depleted
30
What is the difference between ascribed and achieved status?
ascribed: born into or assigned involuntarily
- gender, race, social class
achieved: social position acquired through achievement
- education
31
What is social constructionism?
objects generally have little inherent value unless society ascribes value to it
- individuals and groups participate in the formation of their perceived social reality
32
Which type of structure is likely to be found in ependymal cells?
epithelial + secrete CSF in the brain are simple cuboidal cells
33
In general, a neuronal tract might be found:
leading from the spinal cord to the brainstem
- only bundles in the CNS
34
Why can you not use beta-blockers on people with asthma?
they have difficulty breathing from constriction of bronchioles
beta-blockers would prevent the bronchioles from relaxing
35
Which NT is not transported back into the presynaptic cell via reuptake carrier?
ACh
Dopamine, serotonin, and norepi are all transported back
36
What does not have an effect on the amount of dopamine released in the synaptic cleft between two neurons?
increasing the current generated at the axon hillock
- "all or nothing"
myelination affects AP propagation
37
What is associated with increased GABA activity?
decreased control over inappropriate behavior
- lack of calming, relaxing effects in the brain
38
What is the difference between incidence and prevalence?
incidence: new cases/population at risk per time
prevalence: # cases (new or old)/population at a given time
39
What is associated with abnormally high levels of norepinephrine? Cortisol?
manic episodes: inability to sleep, irritability, and impulsive behavior
depression
40
What is social reproduction theory?
how institutions like family, education, and healthcare perpetuate class, gender, and racial inequalities across generations
41
What is second sickness?
the exacerbation of health disparities due to social injustice and inequalities
ex) Higher rates of chronic illnesses, limited access to healthcare, and shorter life expectancy in underprivileged groups
42
Where is the basal ganglia located?
cerebrum: forebrain contains thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system, and cerebral cortex
43
Which cells are affected by neurocristopathies?
melanocytes, dorsal root ganglia, and calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid
44
When does the explosion of language begin?
18 months
2-3 years, can speak in longer sentences
45
Why are leading questions outlawed in the courtroom?
false memory construction: combine elements of real memories with suggestions or misinformation in the question
46
Tumors in the brain can sometimes lead to unilateral destruction of an optic tract. If one of the participants had a tumor in the right optic tract, which of the following would they have seen?
only the right side of the image through both the left and right yes
- optic tract occurs AFTER the optic chiasm, so it includes images only from the contralateral visual field (from both eyes)
each eye sees part of the left and right visual fields --> signals from the LEFT visual field of BOTH eyes goes to the RIGHT optic tract --> tumor in right optic tract --> loss of vision in the left half of the visual field in BOTH eyes
47
What is social stratification based on?
1) social class: economic assets
2) social status: prestige among others in society
3) power: ability to exert control over the actions of others
48
What explains suicide clusters ?
imitation of a reference group: model beliefs and behaviors
mere exposure effect focuses more on affinity for something rather than explaining a complex behavior
49
What is the Malthusian theory of population growth?
human population increases exponentially while resources increase at a slower rate
- growth rate can be slowed by preventative checks (decrease birth rate) and positive checks (increase death rate)
- large scale positive checks = Malthusian catastrophes dramatically reduce population
50
What is the difference between prejudice and discrimination?
stereotypes: generalized beliefs (good or bad) about social groups
- cognition
prejudice: negative belief and FEELING about someone based on membership in social group
- emotion
discrimination: negative TREATMENT of someone based on membership in a social group
- action
51
What is a subculture?
values and norms do not oppose dominant culture, although group is characteristically distinct
52
What is cultural relativism?
there are no "right" or "wrong" cultural practices
- very inclusive of cultural differences
least likely to have stereotype threat
53
What is the difference between selective and divided attention?
selective: ability to focus on one stimulus or task despite distractions
divided: ability to attend to two or more tasks simultaneously
54
Which type of memory declines with age?
1) episodic: autobiographical events
2) flashbulb: vivid personal memory of significant/emotionally charged event
3) source: where information came from
semantic and procedural stay intact
55
What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?
proactive: previously learned information interferes with one's ability to recall new info
retroactive: more recent information interferes with one's ability to recall older information
56
What is false consciousness?
individuals from lower classes adopt misleading views of upper class and accept the status quo
- do not have class consciousness
57
What does it mean if the 95% confidence intervals overlap?
may or may not be statistically significant
58
What is the monoamine hypothesis?
abnormalities (depletion) in various neurotransmitters cause depressive symptoms
- serotonin (positive mood, satisfaction), dopamine (pleasure, reward), norepinephrine (alertness, attention, memory)
59
What does the nucleus accumbens do?
reward pathway
60
What do monoamine oxidase inhibitors do in depression treatment?
decrease breakdown of monoamines in the presynaptic neuron
61
What does neuroleptic medication do?
reduce positive symptoms (disorganized speech), but may worsen negative symptoms
62
What is the difference between James-Lange theory / Schachter-Singer theory and the Cannon-Bard theory?
JL: physiological response produces emotion
SS: physiological response and cognitive interpretation produces emotion
CB: physiological and emotional response are simultaneous and independent
63
What are the universal emotions?
happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise
64
What is the main idea behind social constructionist theory?
social actors define what is real; knowledge about the world is based on interactions
65
Which Big 5 personality trait most likely resembles the construct of dependence on others ?
agreeableness: tendency to be compassionate to others and to trust other people
66
What is social exchange theory?
people weigh costs and benefits of a relationship to maximize personal gains
- micro level theory
67
Compare the nativist theory of language and the behavioral theory of language.
nativist: innate capability for language
ex) children able to rearrange syntax to form novel sentences with same meaning
behavioral: imitation, practice and rewards (reinforcement) to learn language
68
What is cognitive behavioral therapy?
identifying and challenging negative thought patterns and behaviors and replacing them with better ways of coping
69
What is strain theory?
when individuals are unable to achieve socially acceptable goals through legitimate means, they experience strain which can lead to deviant behavior
70
What is the difference between gender identity and gender role?
identity: person's internal sense of their own gender
role: set of societal expectations about how a person of a particular gender should behave, dress, act
- societal construct
71
Why does a person remember better when they go straight to bed after learning something vs. someone who played a video game after ?
interference: retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with older learning
proactive: when previously learned information interferes with ability to learn and recall new information
72
What is the difference between stereotype and prejudice?
stereotype: generalization about a group of people
prejudice: negative attitude or feeling about a group of people
73
What is the Hawk-Dove game?
an application of game theory: centered around a struggle between two parties for a shared food resource
74
What are the components of attitude?
cognitive: way someone thinks about something
behavioral: way a person acts with respect to something
affective: way a person feels about something
75
What is the difference between a reference group and secondary group?
reference group: who you compare yourself to
secondary: larger, impersonal group connected by shared interest or motivation
76
What is the defense mechanism associated with BPD?
splitting: others are either all good or all bad
- stormy, unstable personal relationships
77
What does your lens, cornea, and pupil do?
cornea: protects eye and refracts light onto the lens
lens: transmits and bends light to focus it onto the retina
pupil: iris expands and contracts based on light
78
What is the behaviorist perspective, humanistic perspective, and the social cognitive perspective?
behaviorist: rewards and punishments shape actions
humanistic: positive aspects of human nature; potential for personal growth, self-actualization
social cognitive perspective: people mold their environments according to their personalities, and those environments in turn shape their thoughts, feelings and behaviors
- observational learning emphasized
- model behavior of others to improve self-efficacy
79
What is the difference between desensitization and habituation?
desensitization: decreased response to a previously sensitized stimulus over time
- increased response followed by gradual decline
habituation: decreased response to a stimulus over time
80
What kind of memory is being tested when you put a rat into a maze? Which part of the brain is vital for this type of learning?
procedural (implicit) memory: learning spatial/motor skills
cerebellum: motor learning
81
What is the difference between actor-observer bias and self-serving bias?
actor-observer: tendency to attribute one's own actions to external factors but others to internal factors
self-serving bias: individuals credit their successes to internal factors but blame their failures on external factors
82
What is ethnography?
qualitative method for the scientific study of human social phenomena
- observation, interviews of people in their natural environment
83
What is the difference between unconditioned stimuli and responses?
unconditioned stimuli: naturally occurring stimulus
ex) cytotoxic medication
unconditioned response: occur naturally as a result of unconditioned stimulus
ex) nausea
conditioned response: neutral stimulus is paired with unconditioned stimulus
ex) fatigue when entering the chemotherapy room
84
what does it mean if the study is reliable? valid?
reliable: consistency of experiment or measure
- produce similar results
valid: accuracy of study or measure
85
What is symbolic interactionism?
meaning and value attached to symbols; individual interactions based on these symbols
86
What does the left and right hemisphere control?
left: analytical thought, language, reasoning, math, science, touch/movement of right side
right: spatial processing, emotion, art, music, visualization, touch/movement of left side of body
87
What are mirror neurons?
fire both while observing and while performing a behavior
88
What is the interactionist theory of language?
language acquisition results from both biological and social factors
- children and caregivers
89
What is a token economy? what is a primary and secondary reinforcer?
token economy: certain behaviors are positively reinforced by using tokens which can be exchanged for a desirable reward
primary reinforcer: naturally rewarding
secondary reinforcer: conditioned to be desirable
90
What is identity development theory?
psychological progress of individuals is based on their level of commitment and degree of exploration
1) identity diffusion: low commitment, low exploration
- lack direction
2) identity foreclosure: high commitment, low exploration
- accept assigned identity
3) identity moratorium: low commitment, high exploration
- don't know
4) identity achievement: high commitment, high exploration
- confident of who they are and what they want to do
91
What is cultural lag?
social problems created by time delay between rapid changes in material culture and slower changes in nonmaterial culture
**society level**
92
What is social desirability bias?
tendency of research participants to overemphasize positive behaviors while downplaying undesirable behaviors
93
What is intersectionality?
how multiple, interconnected marginalized social identities simultaneously impact an individual's lives, perspectives, and treatment in society
94
What does a problem have to entail to be considered some form of stereotype threat?
a specific group has to be called out
95
What is the main result of Stanley Milgram's electrical shock experiment?
participants complied with the experimenter's request although they expressed that they did not want to do that
- obedience: compliance from request of authority figure
96
What are the stages of Kohlberg's moral development?
1) preconventional: obedience, self-interest
2) conventional: conformity, law and order
3) postconventional: social contract, universal ethics
97
What percent of values fall between 1 SD, 2SD, and 3 SD of the mean?
1: 68%
2: 95%
3: 99.7%
98
What are the different types of stereotypes?
1) admiration: group is viewed with pride and positive feelings
2) contemptuous stereotype: group is viewed with resentment, annoyance, or anger
3) paternalistic stereotype: group is looked down upon as inferior, dismissed, or ignored
4) envious stereotype: group is viewed with jealously, bitterness, or distrust
99
A rhino with less yellow-billed birds on its back that feed on open wounds being more attractive to females is an example of what type of mate choice?
indicator trait selection: trait (can be genetic) that is indicative of overall health and fitness
100
What is the difference between sensory bias and runaway selection?
sensory bias: preferences for traits exist in a species BEFORE those traits evolve
- visual preference to the color red because of food makes red males preferred even with no link to fitness
runaway selection: evolution of exaggerated male ornamentation by persistent directional female choice
101
What is physiological revolution resulting in fidelity according to Erikson?
physiological revolution = adolescence + puberty
fidelity = during identity vs. role confusion, the ability to remain true to your values
102
What is the theory of mind?
ability to understand the thinking pattern of others
ex) leader adjusting the way you give instruction to others
103
What is normative conformity?
change behavior from desire to fit into a group and fear of rejection
104
What is a quasi-natural experimental study?
study cause-and-effect relationships using real-world events that act like experiments
- groups form naturally
- used when controlled experiments aren't practical or ethical
105
What explains why American men have fewer job prospects on average than American women?
men have less education and thus less cultural capital (knowledge, skills, behaviors) than women
106
What is ego-dystonic and ego-syntonic?
Ego-dystonic: thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are considered unacceptable or inconsistent with your self-image, causing distress; intrusive + bothersome
- all other psychological disorders
Ego-syntonic: perceives behavior as correct, normal, or in harmony with goals
- personality disorders
107
What is the difference between type I and type II errors?
type I: false positive
type II: false negative
108
What is a eustress?
significant, but understandable stress that occurs in the course of a positive life change
- challenging but manageable
109
What is Mead's theory of identity development?
1) preparatory: infancy/toddler
- imitation, developing "I"
2) play: preschool age
- role-taking, "me" starts to develop
3) game: school age
- generalized other: understanding all roles and overarching rules
110
What is religiosity?
extent to which religious doctrine is internalized and incorporated into an individual's life
111
What is the difference between power and authority?
power: ability to control and influence others
authority: whether others believe that the power is legitimate
- traditional (long-standing patterns, queen)
- charismatic (personal appeal, Ghandi)
- rational-legal authority (professional position, doctor)
112
What is a normative organization? utilitarian? coercive?
normative: based on shared goals/values
- voluntarily unite
utilitarian: driven by compensation
coercive: membership not freely chosen
113
What is sick role theory?
illness is a socially acceptable form of deviance
1) rights: exempt from playing other social roles while sick, fulfilling normal responsibilities, not held responsible for illness
2) obligations: attempt to get well, seek + comply with treatment
114
What is the illness experience?
symbolic interactionist perspective that examines how individuals understand and cope with serious or chronic illness that impact daily life + self-identity
115
What is normative social influence? informational?
normative: conforms to fit in or avoid rejection from others
- group of females from same college
informational: conform because they don't know what to do and believe others do
116
What is looking-glass self-concept?
symbolic interactionist concept that suggests our interpretation of how we are perceived by others impacts our self-concept
117
What is the difference between symbolic interactionism and social constructionism?
interactionism is how we change views when we interact with individuals in society
constructionism is agreeing to give something value that otherwise has none
118
What is cultural evolution?
changes in human values, practices, and/or beliefs that are not due to genes
- behavioral traits
119
What is the universalism perspective on language?
cognition controls language
120
When is the critical period of language development?
2-13
121
Which condition would hypnosis not be indicated?
stress-induced insomnia
arthritis
anxiety
epileptic seizures
epileptic seizures
hypnosis is ineffective against biomedical conditions and effective against psychological perception
- help anything with chronic pain
122
Which sociological theory best explains the motivation for females as family caregivers to participate in online health searches?
social constructionism: gender roles are socially constructed through dynamic interactions with other individuals and groups
123
Researchers wishing to test the correlation between poverty and mortality rate for pancreatic cancer would use what experimental design?
case-control study: testing for correlation between exposure (poverty) and an outcome (pancreatic cancer mortality)
- uses case + control group to see with or without outcome
124
What are cross-sectional studies used for?
specific group of individuals at a specific point in time; PREVALENCE
125
How do you test proactive vs. retroactive interference?
need an established order of presentation: present sequence A before sequence B and then test recall
- A: proactive
- B: retroactive
126
What is the difference between the two classes Karl Marx established in conflict theory?
bourgeoise: those who control and own the means of production
proletariat: those who must sell their labor; working class
- Chief of surgery
127
The fact that new technology tends to increase inequality in health is most likely related to what concept?
individual agency: capacity of individuals to act independently and to make their own free choices
- making free choices is probably limited by your access to information
128
What is a social network?
observable patterns of social relationships among individuals or groups
- connections formed
ex) study elderly couples changes in memberships to organizations
129
What are the different types of social support?
informational: give specific info to help
emotional: share feelings
esteem: promotes skill and ability
instrumental: PRACTICAL problem help (day-to-day assistance)
130
A Russian experiences a set of life circumstances and describes his emotional response as "tocka". An English speaking American experiences the same set of circumstances. What describes the American emotional response in terms of linguistic determinism?
she may or may not experience tocka, depending on her cognitive appraisal of her circumstances
- linguistic determinism: language we speak influences how we categorize/articulate emotion
- emotions are universal, but the way we categorize and understand them depends on the words available
131
What does interactionism require for language learning?
imitation
132
When deaf children are brought together, they spontaneously create a system of signs to communicate. Which theory of language does this support?
nativism: communicating without environmental cues, language arises from an innate, syntactic device
133
The concept of tocka is a representation of an idea, as opposed to physical object, and is related to a group of individuals. A sociologist would describe tocka as:
symbolic culture: non-physical ideas are transmitted from one generation to the next
134
A drug targets serotonin receptors and is shown to benefit people with anxiety. Which patient would benefit from this drug?
PTSD
- has anxiety
135
What parts of the brain is associated with addiction?
Mesolimbic reward pathway: nucleus accumbens, ventral tegmental area, medial forebrain bundle
136
What type of symptom is incoherent speech in schizophrenia?
*positive symptom: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized/incoherent speech, disorganized/agitated behavior
negative symptoms: apathy, social withdrawal, flat affect, lack of speech, anhedonia
137
How do you calculate dependency ratio?
dependency = (# of child dependents) + (# of retired dependents) / (# people in the work force) * 100
proportion of unproductive people to productive (working) people
138
What does intersectionality include?
age, class, gender, race/ethnicity, sex/gender
139
What does feminist theory entail? What is an example?
differences in power between males and females (gender inequality)
ex) workplace practices that discriminate against women and underrepresentation in certain fields
- combat by removing barriers to entry in all occupations for females
140
What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers/punishers?
primary = fulfill biological urge and are naturally rewarding
- food/praise vs. spanking
secondary = learned / conditioned to be desirable
- money vs. bad grades
141
What is taste aversion?
specific and powerful type of classical conditioning where an organism becomes ill after consuming something
- develops after only one event, even if it's hours after consumption
- long durations
142
What are the different components of working memory?
1) central executive: attention and task switching and controls other three components
- phonological loop: manipulating spoken and written information
- episodic buffer: temporal processing
- visuospatial sketchpad: manipulating spatial/visual information
143
What process assists in the perception of depth and motion required during the driving simulation?
motion parallax (relative motion): monocular cue where objects in the foreground are perceived as moving faster than objects in the background
retinal disparity + convergence are not involved in motion perception
144
What is task dissimilarity?
with divided attention, it it easier to perform two dissimilar, easy, and practiced tasks
145
What is the difference between assimilation and accomodation?
assimilation: classifying new information into existing schemata
accommodation: adjusting existing schemata to encompass new information
146
What is nonmaterial culture?
ideas, attitudes, and beliefs of society rather than physical objects or institutions
147
What is the cognitive neoassociation model of aggression?
negative emotions/unpleasant experiences activates aggression towards others
- increased amygdala + testosterone
148
What is the difference between elaborative and maintenance rehearsal?
elaborative: connecting new info to existing knowledge by creating meaning + associations
maintenance: repetition of info for immediate recall
149
What is the identity shift effect?
how individuals change their behavior to conform to the norms of group in order to gain acceptance and then incorporate the standards of the group into their identity
150
Where are the otolith organs located?
vestibule: utricle and saccule
151
What is a specific finding to depersonalization/derealization disorder?
feeling of automation and can have findings where the px can't recognize their own reflection
"dreamlike"
152
What could not be considered a confounding variable?
control groups in an experiment
153
What is ethnocentrism?
practice of making judgements about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture especially when it comes to language, religion, and customs
*view other cultures through the lens of your own*
154
What is the ego-expressive function of attitude?
communicate and solidify our self-identity
155
Exploring the relationship between SES and a person's risk of developing lung cancer over a year long period is what type of study?
cohort study
- follows group and assesses them at different points in time
156
What does a case-control study design look at?
subjects with certain outcome are assessed for previous risk factors
157
Which theoretical approach best explains why there may be pay difference between whites and blacks?
conflict theory: each group competes to earn more money in order to establish dominance
158
What happens as a result of sleep deprivation?
1) REM rebound: increase proportion of REM sleep
2) depressed immune and digestive functions
3) increased likelihood of physical injury
4) increased concentration of adenosine (results from ATP usage)
159
What kind of communication is tone of voice?
nonverbal: conveys meaning and emotion separate from the words spoken
160
What nerve tract serves as the brain system associated with learning, memory, and emotion?
fornix
161
Which impression management strategy is invovled with making excuses for you behavior?
aligning actions: making excuses for questionable behavior
162
What is the difference in healthcare disparities and disparities in health?
healthcare disparities: differences in treatment provided by physicians
disparities in health: preventable differences in health caused by inequalities such as gender, race, SES
163
Which theory of emotion accounts for the role of context?
Schacter-Singer theory: physiological arousal labeled based on environmental cues to experience emotion
164
What is attribute substitution?
when people have to make complex judgements, they decide to use a simpler solution or apply a heuristic
165
What is the difference between moderating, mediating, and confounding variables?
moderating: STRENGTH of a certain relationship
mediating: one that explains the association between two other variables through a causal relationship; PROCESS
confounding variable: extraneous variable that is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables; DISTORTS
166
What does a 95% confidence interval mean?
there is a 95% chance that the true value lies within a given range
- 5% chance that the true value is outside the range
167
What gland produces endorphins?
anterior pituitary
168
A drive-reduction theorist would argue that depression is most strongly correlated with a deficiency in which component of fulfillment?
arousal: motivated to act when we experience internal tension caused by unmet needs, including the need for optimal arousal
**key is resolving physiologic need to maintain homeostasis**
169
Abnormal functioning of which brain region(s) plays a role in the development of depression?
I. Frontal lobe
II. Limbic system structures
III. Hypothalamus
all three
limbic system: emotion + memory
hypothalamus: hormones (mood regulation)
170
What are the key principles of social constructionism? Main examples.
people understand the world through social interactions
- language is the primary tool
- gender roles, race/ethnicity, money are not inherent, but socially constructed this way
171
What did Hans Eysenck and Gordon Allport do?
Hans Eysenck: genetics of personality ** trait of neuroticism in twins studies
Gordon Allport: trait perspective of personality (cardinal, central, and secondary traits)
172
What is attrition bias?
participants drop out of a long term study
173
What is the elaboration likelihood model?
how people process persuasive messages and form attitudes
- persuaded through central route or peripheral route processing
174
What is the difference between informal norms, folkways, mores, and formal norms?
informal norms: rules that are understood, but implicit, unwritten, and not associated with criminal or legal penalties
- folkways: less severe consequences if broken
- mores: severe social sanctions if broken
formal norms: written, explicit, and generally enforced with penalties (laws)
175
The release of which neurotransmitter via the mesolimbic pathway is most likely to reinforce the use or abuse of recreational drugs like alcohol?
dopamine: strengthen motivations and incentives by acting on the reward circuit
176
What was Asch's study of conformity?
significant amount of people conformed to wrong answer even when the correct answer was obvious
- varying amount of people conforming at different times
177
According to the elaboration likelihood model, what is the most persuasive strategy for people who have low motivation to process the message?
peripheral processing route
ex) attractive celebrity using catchy phrase to summarize the effects of a disease
178
How does role playing affect attitude?
behavior changes to be consistent with the role
- Stanford Prison Experiment
179
What is the confidence and optimism bias?
confidence: overestimate own abilities
optimism: tendency for individuals to think they are less likely to experience negative events compared to others
180
How does not using a representative population affect results?
decreases external validity = generalizability
181
What is the difference between controlled and automatic processing?
controlled: require attention
- actively remembering to lock the door
automatic: do no require attention
- noticing a scarf around the handle to remind yourself to lock the door
182
What is chunking?
taking individual elements of a larger list and grouping them together into groups of elements with related meaning
- easily memorizable chunks
183
What is reciprocity in the principles of attraction?
people are more attracted to those who are attracted to them
184
What is the difference between reactive and proactive social movements?
reactive: resist social change
proactive: promote social change
185
Darwin's theory of emotion makes which fundamental assumption?
the expression of emotion is a heritable characteristic
186
Subsequent to age 3 when gender identity is usually formed, what is an appropriate criterion for determining the gender identity of an individual?
self-appraisal on scales of masculinity and femininity
**cultural norms are not a good criterion because standards are often unrealistic**
187
What is the difference between elaborative and maintenance rehearsal?
elaborative: connect new info to something you already know
maintenance: repetition of a piece of information to keep it in working memory
188
Which of the following is characterized by a drastic drop in the voltage reading of an EEG during sleep?
K-complexes during stage 2
189
What intervention is done in experiments where the researchers lie to the participants for the study?
post-experimental debriefing because manipulation can be distressing for subjects
190
Does the right hemisphere of the brain only process visual information from the left eye?
No, the right hemisphere processes information from the left VISUAL FIELD of both eyes
191
What is the difference between dispositional and situational attribution?
dispositional: internal reasoning; relates to person's beliefs, personality, and individual characteristics
situational: external reasoning
192
Functionalists would agree with which of the following statements?
when illness prevents an individual from performing his function in a society, it is a form of dysfunction
manifest functions = positive effects
193
According to the psychodynamic perspective, which is the most influential in the moral reasoning of Kohlberg's preconventional phase?
the id: pleasure principle
- people make decisions with self-interested motives in the preconventional phase
194
What are the characteristics of anxious ambivalent attachments?
strong desire for intimacy mixed with intense fear of abandonment
195
Weber's Ideal Bureaucracy
goal = create an efficient, rational organization where authority is based on legal-rational legitimacy
1) hierarchical structure: clear chain of command
2) formal rules + procedures everyone is evaluated against
3) division of labor: specialized roles
4) merit-based advancement
196
Which statement best describes the sociological conceptualization of race and ethnicity?
Racial and ethnic identities are:
institutionalized in major social structures
- socially constructed categories that change across time periods and geography
- race and ethnicity are fluid and overlapping
197
What is the life course approach?
how early life experiences and exposures influence health outcomes across an individual's life span
- critical periods where exposures have significant impact on long-term health
198
What are the structural features of modern economic systems?
1) division of labor
2) occupational specialization
3) structural interdependence: mutual dependence between sectors
199
What kind of memory is being used in a task where the participant is shown 15 categorizable items, 2 minute distraction task, then asked to recall as many as possible?
semantic memory: facts and knowledge
short term memory is only 20 seconds unless actively rehearsed
200
What are demand characteristics?
subtle cues or clues within a study setting that signal to participants what behavior or response is expected of them
201
A new study finds evidence that one of the most important factors for personality development is the role of early childhood routines. Which theories of personality apply?
social cognitive perspective: environment shapes behavior and we shape environment
behavioral perspective: reinforcement of behaviors over time
202
Which of the following might explain an artificial increase in the prevalence of lung cancer?
a new diagnostic test with higher sensitivity and feasibility
- total cases increase without more people being affected by cancer
203
What is the difference between adaptation and habituation?
adaptation: physiological process that happens automatically at the sensory level (without conscious awareness)
- change in responsiveness to a CONSTANT stimulus over time
habituation: learned behavioral response that involves decreased response to a stimulus after frequently REPEATED exposure
- reduced response to stimulus that previously elicited stronger response
204
Requiring Native Americans to go to government funded schools and learn to speak English is an example of what?
cultural assimilation~members of minority group changes behavior and culture to resemble other group
205
What is perseveration?
someone repeats a response or behavior inappropriately or beyond a desired point
ex) applying the initial rule again and again to the task even when an experimenter has indicated that sorting this way is incorrect
206
What information does a confidence interval provide us with?
probability that the value for the POPULATION parameter of interest lies within a certain range
- NOT the sample
207
What is the recognition-primed decision model?
similar situations play a large role in decision-making and actions
- recognize pattern from experiences
- similar to intuition
208
Working in a hospital emergency room setting, which types of diseases are physicians most likely to see?
diseases associated with old age
- 65+ px are more likely than other patients to use healthcare system
209
Why is randomization important?
limits the effects of confounders on study population because all the unknown entities get distributed evenly between groups
210
What is the difference between alpha and beta waves?
beta: awake + alert + focused
alpha: relaxes before sleeping
211
Birth rates and death rates are low. Industrialization and better healthcare have lowered deaths. Some women have decided to have careers instead of having large families to ensure better QOL, which lowers birth rates. Which stage of DTT are they in?
Stage 4: low birth rate, low death rate
212
In an experiment where a bell awakens px who wet the bed in an attempt to condition them to wake up before they urinate, what does the awakening act as?
both an unconditioned response and conditioned response
- bell causes subject to awaken which is unconditioned response
- awakening is also learned response to the need to urinate
213
In the experiment where the bell rings every time the patient wets the bed, how do you make acquisition of waking up before they pee more effective?
shortening the timer delay before the bell goes off by 10 seconds
- shortens delay between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus, increasing pairing
214
What is symbolic ethnicity?
practice of identifying with an ethnic group primarily through cultural symbols and practices without fully integrating those into every day life
- St. Patrick's Day
- Cinco de Mayo
215
Describe dishabituation.
causes temporary increase in response to original stimulus
- not stronger than original response and will diminish similar to original response
216
What represents the middle 50% of the data?
IQR = Q3 - Q1
217
Partipants are asked to say the first three things that come to their mind when they hear a given word. Which psychological phenomenon is this testing?
schemata: existing associations an individual has with specific concepts and can include behavior or sequence of events
- framework/patterns
218
For a unimodal distribution with a negative skew, what are the measure of central tendency from least to greatest?
mean, median, mode
- mean is least because it is most susceptible to outliers, mode is most because it is least susceptible
219
What is true about p-values?
p-value must be between 0 and 1 (probability)
- p-value > 0.05, fail to reject null hypothesis
220
Which of the following is most likely to directly contribute to demographic transition?
a) decrease in abortions
b) more efficient use of land resources
c) presence of labor unions
d) improvements in sanitation
improvements in sanitation: lower death rates, triggering stage 2
221
Many elementary schools mandated recitation of the pledge of allegiance in front of the American flag. What is this an example of?
ritual: ceremony that involves objects, symbolism, and behaviors
pledge of allegiance itself = nonmaterial culture
222
Describe the Kinsey scale.
0 = exclusively heterosexual
6 = exclusively gay
223
What is parallel play?
children play alongside each other engaging in similar activity without interacting
- observing each other
- common in young children <4
224
If new research indicates that the SAT is biased against students from low socioeconomic backgrounds and does not reflect their knowledge or skills, what would this mean for the test’s psychometric properties? What sociological theory of education is likely supported by the opponents of standardized testing described in the passage?
the test may have high reliability (provides consistent results), but low validity (does not measure students' abilities)
conflict theory: inequality is an underlying aspect of education
225
Which types of bias is most likely to affect research on cultural relativism and ethnocentrism?
social desirability bias: there are social norms about interacting with and accepting people from other cultures, so participants may feel pressure to respond in socially acceptable ways
226
What is kinship of affinity?
individuals are related by choice = marriage
227
What is the most likely reasoning for Country A to have a higher mortality rate, but also rank higher in all other measures of quality of life when compared to Country B?
Country A has a higher median age than Country B
- affluent countries tend to have higher median ages than less affluent countries
**higher fertility rate is related to lower quality of life**
228
What were the main findings in the rhesus monkey experiment where Harry Harlow paired a monkey with simulated mother made from either wire or cloth?
1) monkeys spent most of their time clinging to the cloth mother, even when the wire mother provided milk
2) when scared, they ran to the cloth mother
3) monkeys raised without a comforting mother showed social/emotional issues later in life that could not be corrected
4) monkeys with both cloth and wire mothers drank similar amounts of milk and grew at similar rates
229
What is the cognitive appraisal theory of emotion?
individuals make different interpretations about stimuli leading to different emotional reactions
230
What is thinning in operant conditioning?
reducing the frequency of awards for a given action
231
If it was found that individuals who took Truvada but had a high level of perceived stigma related to Truvada use were more likely to use condoms than those who took Truvada but had a low level of perceived stigma related to Truvada use, which of the following terms would best describe the role of perceived stigma on the relationship between taking Truvada and using condoms?
IV: taking Truvada
DV: condom usage
stigma = moderating variable because it changes strength of relationship between Truvada and condom use
232
What is primary aging?
aging related to biological factors and the physical body
233
Which decision-making phenomenon best explains why researchers told participants that monies held at the end of session 1 would be used to fund games in session 2?
the house money effect: after prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk because the new money is not treated as one's own
234
What is the difference between assimilation, separation, marginalization, and integration?
marginalization: rejection of both cultures
assimilation: interact with new culture and reject native culture
separation: rejecting new culture and maintaining native one
integration: identifying with both
235
If a psychologist were to claim that the ideomotor effect is unconscious, Freudian psychologists would argue this effect could potentially reside in which component(s) of the psychic apparatus?
I. The id
II. The ego
III. The superego
all three are unconscious at least partially
- Id = completely
- ego + superego = partial
236
An outspoken skeptic and opponent of automatic writing attends multiple séances where a medium appears to successfully contact someone who has recently died. If the skeptic’s views shift over time to view the practice as fake but harmless entertainment, this evolution is best described by:
reciprocal determinism: person’s behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the environment
237
Give me eye anatomy from out to in.
cornea --> anterior chamber --> pupil surrounding by iris--> posterior chamber --> lens --> vitreous body --> retina --> choroid --> sclera --> conjunctiva
238
What is the actor observer bias?
actor (own) behavior due to situational factors
- not feeling well, tired, etc.
observer (other) behavior due to internal traits
- rude, socially awkard
239
In a study, each trial involves administering a drop of lemon juice to the participant’s tongue and measuring the participant’s level of salivation. As more trials are conducted, the researcher finds that the magnitude of salivation declines. After a certain point, the researcher switches to administering lime juice. This researcher is most likely studying which process?
habituation and dishabituation
- reduced response to a repeating stimulus = habituation
- new stimulus will likely cause dishabituation
240
According to general adaptation syndrome, how does the stressor affect the response?
stress response always follows a similar course, regardless of the nature of the stressor
241
Neighborhood-level socioeconomic inequalities are most likely to affect physician–patient interactions through which phenomenon?
A. Status hierarchies rely on socioeconomic differences above other master status characteristics.
B. Physical boundaries create social boundaries and closed networks which develop their own cultures.
C. Socioeconomic inequalities create role conflict in physicians who are trained to treat all patients equally.
D. The physician–patient relationship is not subject to the same external forces that govern other relationships.
B) neighborhoods that are segregated create increased distance and different experiences
- physician and patient are separated
