Psych/Soc Flashcards
PNS is composed of
nerves (either spinal or cranial) and ganglia
afferent neurons
carry information into the CNS
efferent neurons
carry information from the CNS
list the basic functions of the NS
motor, sensory, automatic
list the higher functions of the NS
cognition, emotion, consciousness
lower motor neurons
efferent neurons of the PNS which synapse on skeletal muscle
motor unit is comprised of
LMN and skeletal muscle cells
synapse between LMN and skeletal muscle is called
neuromuscular junction
list the LMN signs
- atrophy 2. fasciculations (twitches) 3. hypotonia 4. hyporeflexia
muscle stretch reflex (knee jerk reflex)
ipsilateral, muscle spindle axons carry information to CNS and the efferent neuron will synapse on LMN creating a jerk of the skeletal muscle
role of the autonomic NS
control smooth muscle cells, cardiac muscle, and gland cells
2 components of autonomic NS
PSNS & SNS
pathway of SNS
begins in the middle of the spinal cord, synapses on a ganglia, and sends another axon to synapse on a target farther away
pathway of PSNS
begins in the brainstem or at the bottom of the spinal cord and sends out a long axon to synapse, then a short axon onto a target cell
grey matter
contain neuron somas in the CNS
white matter
contain myelinated axons
grey matter that surrounds the brain is called
cortex
gray matter deep in the brain is known as
nuclei
tracts
collections of axons traveling together in the CNS, carry similar information
UMN control the activity of
LMNs
corticospinal tract
UMN cross over at medulla and synapse on spinal cord
corticobulbar tract
UMN may/may not cross at medulla and synapse on LMN in brainstem
UMN signs
hyperreflexia, clonus (rhythmic contraction of antagonist muscles), hypertonia, extensor plantar response (toes extend)
somatosensory tracts that control position, vibration, and fine touch travel
ipsilaterally in the spinal cord and cross in the brainstem
somatosensory tracts that control pain, temp, and gross touch travel
contralaterally in the spinal cord and synapse in the brain on the opposite side
frontal lobe contains
motor cortex and prefrontal cortex
prefrontal cortex
responsible for executive functions (thinking & problem solving), directs other areas of the brain
broca’s area
in frontal lobe, deals with speech production
parietal lobe
spatial manipulation, contains the somatosensory cortex
somatosensory + motor cortex are known as
sensorimotor cortex
temporal lobe
auditory processing & wernicke’s area
wernicke’s area
language reception & comprehension
the dominant hemisphere is usually
left, opposite of the hand we write with
what areas are both located in the dominant cortex?
broca’s and wernicke’s
hemispheres communicate via
corpus callosum
the “old brain” functions occur
outside our awareness
brainstem is composed of
medulla and pons
brainstem functions include
basic functions like heartbeat & breathing as well as cross over areas for our nerves
medulla
passes messages between spinal cord and brain, essential for regulating your cardiovascular and respiratory systems
pons
works with medulla to generate the respiratory rhythm of breathing
reticular formation
filters information from the spinal cord, arousal, sleep/wake cycles, other autonomic controls & projects to higher areas of the brain
thalamus
relay structure of the brain and talks to higher brain regions
cerebellum
coordinates voluntary movement
3 functions of cerebellum
- gets info about motor plan
- receive position sense information
- sends feedback to motor areas of cerebrum to correct for movement
long tracts
connect cerebrum and brainstem, are either motor or somatosensory
internal capsule contains the
corticospinal tract
ridges on the brain are called
gyri
small grooves on the brain are called
sulci
large grooves on the brain are called
fissures
what information is broadly processed contralaterally?
visual (occipital), somatosensory (parietal), and motor cortex (frontal lobe)
primary cortex
performs basic motor and sensory functions
association cortex
helps out with complex functions or communicates with other lobes to work on a function together
attention functions are commonly carried out by the
R hemisphere
glutamate
excitatory
GABA/glycine
inhibitory (brain and SC respectively)
reticular activating system uses
glutamate
basalis nuclei & septal nuclei use
Ach
hypothalamus commonly uses what NT?
histamine
locus coeruleus in the pons commonly uses
NE
raphe nuclei use
serotonine
ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra, and hypothalamus use
dopamine
descarte brain study method
pineal gland was the soul in the body that guides our thoughts
phrenology
some brain areas are devoted to specific tasks
phineas gage
teaches us about cerebral localization (parts of brain affect behavior, thought, personality)
ablation
purposefully destroying part of the brain
what are 2 modern ways of determining brain structure
CAT & MRI scans
what are 2 modern ways of determining brain function
EEG & MEG
what are 2 modern ways of determining both brain function & structure
fMRI (ratio of deoxy/oxy blood on brain) and PET (rGlucose to determine activity)
endocrine system
produces hormones that travel through the blood in order to elicit an effect far away
3 types of hormones
- polypeptides and proteins 2. steroids 3. tyrosine derivatives
steroid hormones are derived from
cholesterole
2 categories of tyrosine derivative hormones
- thyroid hormones 2. catecholamines: made in adrenal medulla (Epi, NE)
hormones can have 3 types of signaling:
autocrine, paracrine, endocrine
pituitary
master gland, involved in stimulating other endocrine glands
thyroid gland
stimulated through TSH, regulates our body’s metabolism through T3 & T4
parathyroid gland
regulates Ca levels through PSH
adrenal glands
adjacent to kidneys, stimulated by ACTH
- cortex: steroid hormones (cortisol and aldosterone)
- medulla: catecholamines
gonads
stimulated by LH + FSH, make sex hormones
pancreas
not stimulated by the pituitary, releases insulin and glucagon
concentration of hormones is regulated by 2 things
- metabolism: controlled by kidney/liver
2. secretion: controlled via feedback loops
midpiece of sperm
contains mitochondria which helps out the tail
head of sperm
contains nuclear material and acrosome
zona pellucida of egg
made of glycoproteins which sperm must penetrate to fertilize
acrosomal reaction
stuff in sperm head leaks out into zona & digests the zona to touch the plasma membran
cortical reaction
when sperm & egg touch, cortical granules modify the zona so that polyspermy cannot occur
zygote
fertilized egg
cleavage
splitting without growth that occurs while egg is still in zonal, becomes morula
morula differentiates into
trophoblasts and embryoblasts (forms inner cell mass)
blastoceol
fluid filled part of blastocyst when inner cell mass condenses to 1 side
inner cell mass forms a second cavity after blastulation called
amniotic cavity
_ marks the beginning of gastrulation
primitive streak, forms germ layers
neurulation
- mesoderm becomes notochord, induces ectoderm to become neural plate
- neural plate forms neural tube, becomes CNS
- neural crest cells = other cell types
endometrial lining during implantation proliferates into valleys called
crypt
apposition
contact between endometrial lining and trophoblasts
placenta
when syncytiotrophoblasts and maternal uterine blood comes into contact, they eventually form
endoderm
forms GI tract
mesoderm
forms inner skin layers, muscles, bones, heart, kidneys, bladder, sex organs
ectoderm
outer skin layers, sweat glands, hair, NS
fertilization usually occurs around week _ of gestation
2
embryogenesis usually occurs for about _ weeks, and _ occurs during this time
10, organogenesis
_ week is considered to be full term
40
nature
refers to maturation, physical traits that drive development
nurture
environmental influences
gross motor
larger muscle
fine motor
smaller muscles (ie cutting with scissors or coloring a picture)
motor development occurs
core to periphery, head to toe
list the permanent reflexes
breathing, eye blink, pupillary, swallowing reflexes
rooting reflex
stroke cheek and head turns toward stimulus
babinski
curl toes when bottom of foot is stroked
moro
startle reflex, arms flail and come back in
tonic neck (fencing posture)
head turns and same arm straightens while the other bends
galant reflex
one side of back is stroked and baby will turn to that sick
stepping reflex
babies when held will try to step as if they can walk
adolescence
transition period between childhood and adulthood, starts at puberty until they are independent
puberty
2 years long, period of sexual maturation
- males: 13, ejaculation
- females: 11, menstrual cycle
primary sex characteristics
testes and ovaries
secondary sex characteristics
voice, body hair or breasts, hips. both: hair!
name the brain changes during adolescence
- front lobe: prefrontal cortex
- limbic system
- corpus callosum
- global changes: increase in myelination, increase/then decrease of brain volume (synaptic pruning)
temperament
established before exposed to environment, persistent as one ages
heredity
passing traits from parents to offspring, controlled by genes
genes
segments of DNA that are capable of synthesizing proteins
genome
collections of genes
monozygotic (identical)
develop from 1 fertilized egg, share 100% of genes
dizygotic (fraternal)
2 separate fertilized eggs, 2 different sperm: share 50% of genes
heritability
% of variation of traits due to changes in genes.
- h^2 = 0.99 –> same environment
- more genetic variation = more heritability
gene regulation
gene expression is modulated by environmental factors, changes the context of the protein
epigenetics
study of changes in gene expression by changing something else (ex. methylation)
eku
genetic condition caused by mutations to a gene that affects an enzyme and causes buildup of phenylalanine which can affect the brain
ethology
observations of behaviors (overt behaviors)
innate
behavior that is genetically programmed (subject to mutation)
qualities of innate behavior
inherited, intrinsic, stereotypic, inflexible, consummate (not fully developed at first performance)
traits of innate behavior
- reflexes
- orientation: spatially regulating our environment
- fixed action pattern: sequence of coordinated movement that is automatic and cannot be changed when it begins
learned behavior
results from experience
qualities of learned behavior
non-inherited, extrinsic, permutable (pattern of sequences that change over time), adaptable (can be modified), progressive (improved, refined through practice)
motivation is based around 3 types of needs:
physiological, psychological, learned
psychological needs
innate, biological and must be met in order for survival
reduction theory
suggests that motivation comes from your desire to reduce internal tension
psychological needs
based on your thoughts, feelings, beliefs, expectations, and self-image
cognitive dissonance theory
suggests that when there are sig differences between what you think or believe and how you act, you feel uncomfortable or unhappy. your discomfort makes you want to change your behavior so that you’ll feel better
learned needs
come from your experiences and are heavily influenced by things that happen to you throughout your life
incentive theory
suggests that any epxerience that is connected to a reward will make you more motivated to act
maslow’s hierarchy of needs
basic needs, psychological needs, and self-fulfillment needs (pyramid, need to obtain 1 to reach next level)
drive reduction theory
needs: a lack that will energize the dirve which will reduce the neeed (drive is physiological)
drive-arousal
fulfill our deisre to reach optimal arousal and fulfillment
cognitive approach
ration and decisionmaking abilities
the incentive theory focuses on
positive reinforcement to increase the frequency of the behavior
attitude
learned tendency to evaluate something in a specific way
three components of attitudes? (ABC model of attitude)
- affective/emotional
- behavioral
- cognitive
theory of planned behavior
implications & intentions: based on attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavior control
attitude to behavior process model
if an event triggers an attitude, it will influence our perception of an object
prototype willingness model states that behavior is a function of
previous behavior, attitudes, subjective norms, intentions, willingness, prototypes (models)
elaboration likelihood model for persuasion
focuses on the why and how of persuasion: information is processed through the- central root (based on quality of the argument) and peripheral root (superficial and non-verbal persuasion cutes)
foot in door phenomenon
we have a tendency to agree to smaller things which can lead to bigger agreements (brainwashing)
role playing
what feels like acting starts to become who we are
cognitive dissonance
discomfort experienced when holding two contradicting beliefs: modify, trivialize, adding, denying
attribution
process of inferring the causes of our behavior
-consistency, distinctiveness, consensus
psychoanalytic theory of personality
composed of three elements: id, ego, and superego
humanistic theory of personality
individuals have free-will and want to reach self-actualizzation
-combined of maslow’s hierarchy of needs and carl rogers (self-actualization is nurtered through genunity and acceptance from others)
biological theory of personality
important components of personality are inherited or determined by our genetics
traditionalism
tendency to follow authority
social potency
degree to which someone takes on leadership roles in social situations
behavioral theory of personality
personality is the result of interaction between an individual and their environment, focused on observable and measurable behavior
-cognitive theory is the bridge between this theory and the psychoanalytic theory
trait theory of personality
defines personality in terms of patterns of behavior
traits
stable charactersitics
allport & traits
everyone has different traits and there are 3 categories: cardinal, central, and secoondary
cattel & traits
16PF
eysenck & traits
we all have 3 major dimensions but we experience them at different degrees
-extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism
big 5
found in all people (OCEAM)
social cognitive theory
bobo doll experiment
- AMIMOtivationed
- attention, memory, immitation, motivation
types of defense mechanisms
- pathological: distort reality
- immature: projection, passive aggression
- neurotic: intellectualization, rationalization, regression, repression, displacement
- mature: humor, suppression, altruism
- reaciton formation
pleasure principle
when we are immature, we want immediate gratification
reality principle
when we are older, we understand long-term gratification
drives
intrinsic, universal impulses that everyone has
- eros: life
- thanatos: death
OCD
linked to communication problems between the parts of the bain that translate information into thoughts and actions including the orbitfrontal cortex, caudate nucleus, cingulate gyrus, and basal ganglia
obsessions
intrusive and recurring thoughts, ideas, mental images, and beliefs that are often disturbing and cause significant emotional distress or dysfunction
compulsions
behaviors or rituals that a person feels driven to do, performed in an effort to reduce the anxeity and distress caused by obsessions
PTSD
extreme reaction to trauma that can change how a person thinks, feels, and behaves and causes considerable distress and affects their ability to function. associated with issues in the amygdala, HC, prefrontal cortex, HPA axis
schizophrenia
- cognitive, negative, and positive symptoms
- possible abnormalities in the VTA area which releases dopamine, plays a role in the mesocorticolimbic pathways
prodrome
start to demonstrate signs of schizophrenia, deterioration in a person’s behavior and function
depression
invovles the decreased activity of the frontal lobe and increased activity of the limbic structures, hypothalamus is what connects these two
-NT abnormalities in the raphe nuclei (serotonin), LC (NE), and VTA (dopamine)
the 10 types of personality disorders are grouped into 3 categories:
A: paranoid, schizoid (emotionally detached), or Schizotypal (magical thinking)
B: antisocial, borderline, histrionic (attention seeking), narcissitic
C: avoidant, dependent, OCPD
insomnia
persistant trouble falling or staying asleep
narcolepsy
people have fits of intense sleepiness
sleep apnea
stop breathing while sleeping
tolerance
you get used to a drug so you need more the reach the same levels
withdrawal
experience of period of no drug use
lewy bodies
contain clumped alpha-synuclein seen in PD
biological factors of depression
decreased activation of the prefrontal cortex, low levels of activity in the reward center of the brain, NT regulation (serotonin and NE)
psychological factors of dperession
learned helplessness, cognitive distortions, attribution (internal, negative experiences that are stable and global)
environmental factors of depression
co-rumination, low SES
bipolar
individual swings from emotional highs to emotional lows.
-experience mania
conformity
“peer pressure”
2 main influences of conformity
- informative influence
2. normative influence
group polarization
group diecision making amplifies the opnion of individual group memebrs
confirmation bias
the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories.
group think
“unity” practice of thinking or making decisions in a group which discourages creativity or individual responsibility
obedience
follow orders and obey authority
compliance
do a behavior to get a reward and avoid punishment
identification
go along with something b/c you respect/admire the key individual
internalization
we conform both privately and publically
asch conformity studies
member of gestalt principles (whole), shows that peole are liekly to conform
milgram experiment
demonstrate how normal people will go along with an authority figure if they are forced to
just world phenomenon
the world is fair so people get what they deserve
self-serving bias
idea that we ourservles wouldn’t do the same thing others would
fundamental attribution error
tendency to attribute other people’s behaviors to their dispositional factors while attributing one’s own actions to situational factors
internalization
integration of attitudes, values, standards and the opinions of others into one’s own identity or sense of self
situational attribution
assigning the cause ofbehavior to some situation or event outside a person’s control rather than to some internal charactersitics
demand characteristics
how much of someone’s behavior is influenced by the way they think others want them to behave
selection bias
error that occurs when the researcher decides who is going ot be studied
bystander effect
individual will feel less inclined to take action if there are mroe people in a group
diffusion of responsibility theory
when individuals are in the presence of others they feel less personal responsibility and are less inclined to help
social facilitation
presence of others will increase the dominant response
social loafing
describes the tendency of individuals to put forth less effort when they are part of a group
