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Psych/Soc Flashcards

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1
Q

Conditioned Response

A

the learned response to a neutral (or conditioned) stimulus

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2
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus

A

a biologically significant stimulus (food/pain) that elicits an unconditioned response

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3
Q

Aquisition

A

Process of pairing a neutral/conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. The more often this happens, the stronger the conditioned response will be.

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4
Q

Extinction

A

When an animal no longer produces the conditioned response; occurs when you present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

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5
Q

Discrimination

A

When only the conditioned stimulus can elicit the conditioned response and other stimuli cannot

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6
Q

Generalization

A

tendency to respond in a similar way to similar but different stimuli

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7
Q

Amygdala

A

Responsible for regulating our perceptions of and reactions to aggression and fear

Chronic stress alters the excitability of neurons in the amygdala, leading to more anger, fear, and anxiety.

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8
Q

Normative Organization

A

people join due to a shared ethical or ideal goal

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9
Q

Utilitarian Organizations

A

members are compensated for their involvement

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10
Q

Attributional Bias

A

a cognitive bias that refers to the systematic errors made when people evaluate or try to find reasons for their own and others’ behaviors– will not always reflect reality

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11
Q

fundamental attribution error.

A

describes the tendency for individuals to overemphasize internal characteristics, such as personality, in attempting to explain someone’s behavior at the expense of situational factors.

Underemphasizing situational and environmental explanations and overemphasizing dispositional and personality based expectations

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12
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

transmit info from periphery to CNS

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13
Q

Interneuron

A

found in the spinal cord

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14
Q

Motor Neurons

A

carry signals away from the spinal cord and toward the muscle

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15
Q

Construct Validity

A

whether or not measures actually assess the variables they are intended to assess

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16
Q

External Validity

A

the extent to which we can generalize results onto different experimental settings or real life situations

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17
Q

Projective Personality Assessments

A

require the participant to respond, and their response is assessed for meaning

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18
Q

Weber’s Law

A

There is a linear relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and its detection

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19
Q

Huntington’s disease

A

caused by an expanded CAG repeat in the gene on chromosome 4

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20
Q

Blocking reuptake of a hormone would

A

potentiate/ increase its effects

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21
Q

Functionalist theory

A

concerned with finding out how existing social structure promote social stability

Looks at macro-level institutions/social structures

Durkheim/Parsons

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22
Q

Conflict theory

A

disparities between power and resources between groups

Marx

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23
Q

Deindividuation

A

tendency for people to lessen self awareness and responsibility in large, anonymous groups

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24
Q

Social capital

A

value embedded in social networks like job connections, ability to call in favors/rely on others for support

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25
Q

Negative punishment

A

removes a pleasant factor to discourage a behavior

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26
Q

positive punishment

A

adds an unpleasant consequence to discourage a behavior

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27
Q

kinesthetic system

A

balance and sense of body in the world

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28
Q

groupthink

A

occurs when homogenous groups of people have a strong desire for harmony/conformity that they will make irrational decisions!!

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29
Q

Cross-sectional studies

A

investigate a population at a single point in time, looking for predictive relationships among variables.

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30
Q

Occipital lobe involved with

A

visual perception

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31
Q

Pineal gland produces

A

melatonin

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32
Q

Corpus callosum

A

where the two hemispheres are joined

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33
Q

independent samples t-test

A

when researchers wish to compare mean values of two unrelated groups

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34
Q

paired samples t test

A

when researchers have respondents provide multiple measurements at different points in time

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35
Q

Regression

A

used to predict scores from independent variables

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36
Q

Sensorimotor stage (Piaget)

A

0-2 years

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37
Q

Preoperational (Piaget)

A

2-7 years

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38
Q

Concrete operational (Piaget)

A

7-11 years

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39
Q

Formal operational (Piaget)

A

12+ years

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40
Q

Vygotsky’s social learning theory

A

stresses role of people and interactions in the acquisition of cognitive skills

cognition and language develop independently but are both influenced by social interaction: Cognition is the product of socialization, and language arises out of a necessity for social communication.

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41
Q

Chomsky’s language acquisition theory

A

People have an innate language acquisition capacity

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42
Q

Erikson’s 8 stages

A

0-1 : Trust vs. mistrust
1-3 : Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
3-6 : Initiative vs. guilt
6-12 : Industry vs. inferiority
12-20 : Identity vs. role confusion
20-40 : Intimacy vs. isolation
40-65 : Generativity vs. stagnation
65+ : Ego integrity vs. despair

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43
Q

Preconventional stage (Kohlberg)

A

stage of moral development characterized by more concern for rewards and punishments than social rules and laws

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44
Q

Postconventional stage (Kohlberg)

A

stage of moral development characterized by concern with morality and the good of society than social rules and laws

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45
Q

N1 sleep stage

A

Dominated by theta waves.
Strange sensations – hypnagonic hallucinations, hearing or seeing things that aren’t there.

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46
Q

N2 Sleep Stage

A

deeper stage of sleep. harder to awaken. more theta waves, as well as sleep spindles and K-complexes.

Sleep spindles help inhibit certain perceptions so we maintain a tranquil state during sleep
K-complexes supress cortical arousal and keep you asleep. Also help sleep-based memory consolidation.

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47
Q

N3 sleep stage

A

slow wave sleep. Characterized by delta waves. Where walking/talking/bedwetting in sleep happens

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48
Q

REM sleep

A

muscles paralyzed, dreams occur and memories are consolidated
Combination of alpha, beta, and desynchronous waves

Sometimes called paradoxical sleep, because brain is active and awake but body prevents it from doing anything.

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49
Q

Universal emotions

A

Happiness
Sadness
Contempt
Surprise
Anger
Disgust
Fear

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50
Q

Length of sleep cycle

A

90 minutes

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51
Q

moderating variable

A

changes the strength of the relationship between dependent and independent variables

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52
Q

mediating variable

A

explains the relationship between independent and dependent variables

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53
Q

Affect heuristic

A

making a judgment based on emotions that are evoked

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54
Q

the context effect

A

the influence of environmental characteristics on a person’s perception of a stimulus

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55
Q

Social cognitive perspective

A

emphasizes both thinking and social learning in personality development

ex. person sees violence have positive results and becomes prone to violent behaviors

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56
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

degree to which males and females resemble each other

high sexual dimorphism= very different, intense competition for mates

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57
Q

stimulus motive

A

a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation

a motive that is driven by external stimuli and the interaction with the environment. So like the idea of discovery and curiosity is a stimulus motive because its something intrinsic we have, we want to learn how the world around us works, but at the same time is not necessary for survival

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58
Q

Stanley Milgram

A

performed obedience experiment where he demonstrated that participants would follow orders of a superior if instructed to go against their conscience

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59
Q

Informative pressure

A

a type of conformity pressure; occurs when an individual conforms behavior to match that of the rest of a group because they believe the group is better informed

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60
Q

normative pressure

A

type of conformity pressure; individual knows the others are incorrect, but still feels pressure to not dissent

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61
Q

James Lange

A

“action before emotion”

emotions are the result of autonomic arousal

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62
Q

Cannon-Bard

A

“two bards with one stone”

physiological arousal and subjective experience occur simultaneously

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63
Q

Schachter-Singer

A

“Sensation (physiological response) and Solve (interpretation of cognition) = emotion

Emotions are based on a stimulus which the mind then puts into context; processing context of stimulus creates the emotion

similar to the James-Lange theory except for an additional component: cognitive interpretation of physiological response. In other words, anger, fear, and excitement might all produce similar elevations in heart rate, but the experience of each emotion is quite different because emotion is the result of two factors, physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of the situation.

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64
Q

Lazarus

A

“Lazarus labels first”

Labeling recognition then physiological response and emotion

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65
Q

Limbic System

A

storage and retrieval of memories that pertain to emotion

HAT Hippo
Hypothalamus
Amygdala
Thalamus
Hippocampus

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66
Q

Parallel play

A

young children playing independently but in the same proximity and learning from one another

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67
Q

Symbolic interactionism

A

looks at micro level; how human behavior is the most impactful to society

people act based on meanings of cultural symbols derived from cultural interactions

studies how people interact by using a shared understanding of certain symbols (e.g., a “thumbs up” sign).

Cooley/Mead

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68
Q

Cultural Relativism

A

beliefs/health behaviors that should be understood within the context of culture

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69
Q

Social desirability bias

A

when people feel pressured to respond in a way that is socially acceptable within a study

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70
Q

Harlow

A

Monkey experiment; showed that infants would cling to cloth mother, even when wire mother was the only food provider

showed that contact comfort is crucial
monkeys paired with wire mother behaved abnormally; could not be corrected

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71
Q

anomie

A

when society feels fragmented and incohesive

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72
Q

Internal Validity

A

degree to which causal conclusions can be drawn from studies

the extent to which you can assume the intervention being studied caused the observed outcome

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73
Q

face validity

A

whether an assessment superficially appears to measure what it is supposed to measure.

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74
Q

external validity

A

how generalizable findings of a study are to the population as a whole

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75
Q

functional MRI

A

allows researchers to assess the operation of brain regions, as well as their structure

Measures blood oxygenation in the brain

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76
Q

High risk behaviors associated with

A

prefrontal cortex (nucleus accumbens, amygdala)
(also involved in critical thinking)

Also, chronic stress has been shown to decrease dendritic branching in areas associated with cognitive flexibility within prefrontal cortex, resulting in REDUCED COPING MECHANISMS. It also increases dendritic branching in areas associated with INCREASED HYPERVIGILANCE.

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77
Q

confounding variable

A

affects both independent and dependent variable, causing them to be related

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78
Q

proactive interference

A

old memories inhibit consolidation of retrieving new memories

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79
Q

Retroactive interference

A

new memories interfere with old memories

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80
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

inability to remember previous events

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81
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

inability to remember new events

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82
Q

role strain

A

stress from too many demands within one role

different than role conflict which stems from two separate roles

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83
Q

role conflict

A

two roles coming into conflict

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84
Q

alzheimers

A

reduced acetylcholine

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85
Q

schizophrenia

A

increased dopamine

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86
Q

korsakoff

A

decreased thiamine (B1)

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87
Q

Hans Selye

A

Introduced general adaptation syndrome to describe responses to long and short term stress reactions:

  1. alarm reaction
  2. stage of resistance
  3. stage of exhaustion

an organism’s stress response always follows a similar course, regardless of the exact nature of the stressor

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88
Q

activation synthesis

A

has to do with differences in neuronal activity in brainstem during waking/resting sleep

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89
Q

theory of cognitive appraisal

A

explains mental processes that influence responses to stressors
stress as a two step process:
1. production of stressors by environment
2. response of an individual subjected to stressors

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90
Q

house money effect

A

people don’t think of newly gained money as one’s own and will assume more risk with it

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91
Q

the gambler’s fallacy

A

if something happens more frequently than normal for a period of time, it will happen less frequently in the future

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92
Q

prisoner’s dilemma

A

when individual decision makers act in a way that will cause less optimal outcomes for a group

ex. if one person confesses, the other will have better outcome; often neither confess

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93
Q

LGN

A

relays visual info

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94
Q

Hippocampus

A

plays a key role in forming new memories. Convert STM (Short term memory (from the past 20 seconds)) to LTM (long term memory). If destroyed, still have old memories intact, just can’t make new ones (anterograde amnesia).

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95
Q

frontal lobe

A

cognitive skills/judgment/development

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96
Q

Parietal lobe

A

spatial sense/navigation

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97
Q

General strain theory

A

individuals with negative experience may behave in negative ways

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98
Q

reciprocal determinism (Bandera)

A

behavior influences and is influenced by personal factors and environments

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99
Q

punishment/reinforcement

A

negative: something taken away
positive: something given

punishment: to stop a behavior
reinforcement: to promote a behavior

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100
Q

social cognitive theory

A

people learn by watching others

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101
Q

ideal bureaucracy

A

impersonal, written rules, hierarchical

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102
Q

Eysenck

A

We have 3 major dimensions of personality:
extroversion
neuroticism (emotional stability)
psychoticism (degree to which reality is distorted)

not all necessarily have psychoticism.

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103
Q

Allport

A

3 traits of personality:
cardinal (most important)
central
secondary

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104
Q

Adrenal cortex secretes…

A

aldosterone

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105
Q

Posterior pituitary secretes…

A

vasopressin (ADH) for fluid uptake in kidneys
oxytocin

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106
Q

adrenal medulla secretes…

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine

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107
Q

drive reduction theory

A

motivation arises from desire to eliminate drives (hunger/reproduction) and depression stems form a reduction in arousal

motivation is the result of a disruption in homeostasis, which produces a physiological need (eg, hunger), which leads to a drive (eg, desire to eat). Homeostasis is reestablished once the drive is reduced.

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108
Q

incidence

A

number of cases per year

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109
Q

prevalence

A

of people overall

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110
Q

Types of stress

A

distress: negative
neustress: neutral
eustress: positive

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111
Q

core components of emotion

A

physiological arousal (how your body reacts to emotions, emotional information or stimuli)

expressive displays(how you express your emotions)

subjective experiences (how you feel and interpret your emotions, which is extremely personal and subjective).

physiological
cognitive
behavioral

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112
Q

representative heuristic

A

reasoning about a probability based on a prototypical example/stereotype

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113
Q

availability heuristic

A

reasoning based on what most easily comes to mind

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114
Q

Asch

A

studied whether social pressure is likely to make someone conform

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115
Q

age stratification theories

A

age is a way of regulating a generation’s behavior

Activity Theory - looks at how older generation looks at themselves. Certain activities or jobs lost, those social interactions need to be replaced so elderly can be engaged.

Disengagement Theory – older adults and society separate, assumes they become more self-absorbed as they age. But considers elderly people still involved in society as not adjusting well, which is debatable.

Continuity Theory - people try to maintain same basic structure throughout their lives. As they age make decisions to adapt to external changes and internal changes of aging.

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116
Q

dependency ratio

A

the proportion of unproductive (ie, too old or too young to work) to productive (ie, working-age) members in a society

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117
Q

Malthusian theory

A

maintains that population growth is exponential but resource growth is linear.
When populations outgrow available resources, preventive checks decrease the birth rate and positive checks increase the death rate; Malthusian catastrophes are large-scale positive checks (war, disease epidemics).

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118
Q

Optimum population

A

a demographic theory regarding the ideal population size, which is the number of people yielding the highest per capita income given the country’s level of wealth, knowledge, and technical resources.

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119
Q

Binocular cues

A

Give sense of depth
Retinal disparity (eyes 2.5 inches apart, get slightly different views of objects)
Convergence- angular position of eyes as they focus (things far away, eyes relax; things close to us, eyes contract)

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120
Q

Monocular cues

A

depth cues that can be perceived using one eye only and often rely on comparisons between objects

Relative size (closer/bigger)
interposition (overlap)
relative height (things higher perceived to be further away)
shading and contour
motion parrallax (things farther away move slower)
Constancy- our perception doesn’t change even if the image cast on the retina is different (size, shape color)

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121
Q

Sensory adaptation- Inner ear muscle

A

will contract with prolonged higher noise

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122
Q

sensory adaptation- smell

A

desensitized to molecules

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123
Q

sensory adaptation- proprioception

A

sense of the position of the body in space

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124
Q

sensory adaptation- sight

A

down regulation: light adaptation; when it is bright pupils constrict and become desensitized

up regulation: dark regulation; when it is dark pupils dilate and synthesize light sensitive molecules

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125
Q

absolute threshold of sensation

A

minimum intensity needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

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126
Q

Neuron timing

A

Non-adapting: neuron consistency fires at a constant rate

Slow adapting: neuron fires at the beginning of a stimulus then calms down

Fast adapting: neuron fires as soon as stimulus starts, then stops

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127
Q

vestibular system

A

located in inner ear

the sensory system that contributes to balance and the sense of spatial orientation

canal filled with endolymph which detect direction of movement

otolithic organs help detect linear acceleration and head positioning

contains semicircular canals

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128
Q

signal detection theory

A

looks at how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty

signals have noise distribution (background) and signal distribution peaks
- d’ is between two peaks

hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
d’ = strength
C= strategy (might be liberal or conservative)
if C=0 it is ideal
if C>1 conservative (says no unless positive, will get some misses)
if C <1 liberal ( says yes, will get false alarms)

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129
Q

bottom up processing

A

begins with stimulus, which influences what we perceive

data driven

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130
Q

top down processing

A

uses background knowledge and influences perception

theory driven; perception influenced by expectation

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131
Q

Gestalt principles

A

explains how we perceive things

  • similarity: items similar to one another group together by the brain
  • pragnanz: reality in its simplest form possible
  • proximity: objects close together are grouped together in our minds
  • continuity: assume lines follow smoothest path
  • closure: objects group together seen as whole
  • symmetry

law of common fate: objects functioning/moving in same direction perceived to belong together (flock of birds)

law of past experiences: ex. even if you see a new word for the first time, know that Li is two separate letters, not a U

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132
Q

conjunctiva

A

thin layer of cells that lines the inside of your eyelids from the eye

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133
Q

cornea

A

transparent, thick sheet of fibrous tissue; starts to bend light; first part that light hits

outermost layer of the front of the eye, in which it directly contacts the back of the eyelids

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134
Q

anterior chamber

A

space filled with aqueous humor that provides pressure to maintain shape of eyeball and allows minerals/nutrients to supply cells of cornea/iris

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135
Q

pupil

A

modulates the amount of light able to enter the eyeball

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136
Q

iris

A

gives he eye color; constricts/relaxes to change size of pupil

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137
Q

lens

A

changes shape and uses suspensory ligaments to bend the light so it goes to the back of the eyeball; focuses light on the fovea of the retina

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138
Q

suspensory ligaments

A

attached to ciliary muscle to form ciliary body which secretes aqueous humor

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139
Q

posterior chamber

A

area behind the iris to the back of the lens; filled with aqueous humor

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140
Q

vitreous chamber

A

filled with vitreous humor; provides pressure and gives nutrients to eyeball

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141
Q

retina

A

inside, back area filled with photoreceptors; where light is converted to neural signals for the brain

contains rods and cones

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142
Q

macula

A

special part of retina rich in cones (also has rods)

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143
Q

fovea

A

part of macula; completely covered in cones (no rods)

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144
Q

cones

A

detect color and discern detail

have fast recovery time

  • contain photopsin
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145
Q

rods

____ when hit by light

____ sensitive than cones

____ recovery time

A

detect light

turn off when light hits it

more sensitive than cones

have slow recovery time

  • contain optic discs (large membrane bound structures with proteins that fire action potentials to brain)
146
Q

choroid

A

part of uvea (vascular layer of eye)

pigmented black in humans; a network of blood vessels that help nourish the retina

located deep to the sclera

147
Q

sclera

A

whites of the eyes; thick fibrous tissue; attachment pt for muscles

148
Q

EM spectrum

A

highest 700 to lowest 400 wavelength

ROYGBIV

149
Q

bipolar cells

A

found in retina; connect with rods and cones and pass electrical impulses to ganglion cells

150
Q

ganglion cells

A

found in retina; take the electrical impulse from the bipolar cells; impulse travels down their axons and make up optic nerve

151
Q

optic nerve

A

formed by axons from ganglion nerve banding together into a strand

go through retina and the back of the eye

where they connect to retina there is a blind spot

network the electrical signal to the brain and converge from each eye at the optic chiasm

152
Q

trichromatic theory of color

A

red green and blue combine to make all colors

153
Q

opponent process theory of color vision

A

red, green, blue and yellow perceived by cones

red/ green and blue/ yellow oppose each other

154
Q

Phototransduction Cascade

A

makes brain recognize there is light entering the eyeball and turns it into a neural impulse by turning off rod

155
Q

organ of corti

A

located inside cochlea; transmits auditory info

splits cochlea into 2– the upper and lower membrane

At the upper membrane: The hair cells/cilia are called the hair bundle and it ismade of little filaments. Each filament is called a kinocilium. Tip of each kinocilium is connected by a tip link which is attached to gate of K+ channel.
When the tip links get pushed back and forth by endolymph movement, they stretch and allows K+ to flow inside the cell from the endolymph (which is K+ rich)

When K+ is inside, Ca2+ cells get activated, so Ca2+ flows into the cell and causes an action potential, activates a spiral ganglion cell, then activates the auditory nerve.

156
Q

Stereopsis

A

Stereopsis is the perception of depth that arises from the integrated information received from both eyes

157
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

occurs when the neural response to an unchanging stimulus is dampened and the perception of that stimulus either disappears or is diminished

158
Q

Feature detection

A

involves the perceptual discrimination of specific aspects of a given stimulus via feature detectors. Feature detectors are specific neurons that preferentially fire in response to very specific stimuli.

look for color, form, motion

159
Q

hypothalamus

A

in limbic system; regulates Autonomic Nervous System

centrally located in the brain and is the command center for the endocrine system, which produces hormones that regulate a number of the body’s functions, such as growth, metabolism, blood pressure, core body temperature, appetite, and sleep.

160
Q

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

regulates the circadian pacemaker that controls circadian rhythms.

When light levels are high, the SCN downregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland. When light levels are low, the SCN upregulates melatonin production by the pineal gland.

161
Q

cerebellum

A

motor coordination and motor learning

162
Q

parkinsons in the

A

basal ganglia

163
Q

The monoamine hypothesis

A

states that a depletion of monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine) in the central nervous system causes depression symptoms.

164
Q

meta-analysis

A

a systematic, quantitative review of multiple studies that have attempted to answer a similar question using comparable methodology and outcome measures. By statistically analyzing the aggregate data, a meta-analysis provides a broader perspective than any single experiment.

165
Q

anhedonia

A

reduced ability to percieve pleasure

166
Q

nucleus accumbens

A

a structure that is part of the reward pathway in the brain. The reward pathway also includes the ventral tegmental area (which produces dopamine) and portions of the prefrontal cortex.

167
Q

SSRIs work by

A

blocking resorption of serotonin into the presynaptic neuron so it stays in the synaptic cleft for longer

168
Q

MAOIs

A

inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme attached to the mitochondria in axon terminals that catalyzes the oxidation (breakdown) of monoamines such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.

functions in the presynaptic neuron to recycle monoamines that have been removed from the synaptic cleft. Inhibition of monoamine oxidase therefore increases the concentrations of monoamines in the axon terminal and within the synaptic cleft.

169
Q

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A

also known as linguistic relativity, posits that language influences our perception and cognition.

theory that language shapes cognition. It contends that language development influences cognition but does not entirely determine or control it. (less absolute view than linguistic determinism)

170
Q

Linguistic determinism

A

states that language controls perception and cognition

the theory that language shapes cognition, states that language completely controls cognition (ie, what/how we think is a product of language) and that without language there is no thought.

if language does not differentiate between blue and indigo, a person will not be able to distinguish

171
Q

nativist hypothesis

A

states that language is not learned the way other skills/behaviors are learned but is rather an innate process hardwired in the brain. As long as humans are exposed to language during a critical period in early life, language development is biologically predetermined.

172
Q

The opponent-process theory

A

States that color information from cones is combined in such a way that we perceive three opposing pairs of colors: black/white, blue/yellow, and red/green. No two members of a pair are seen simultaneously, which is why we do not see colors such as “reddish green” or “bluish yellow.”

173
Q

The Young-Helmholtz theory

A

also known as the trichromatic theory, states that all the colors we see are the result of the combined activity of three types of photoreceptors: Those that respond to short (blue), medium (green), and long (red) wavelengths of light.

174
Q

Contralateral processing

A

A stimulus in the left visual hemifield is processed in the right visual cortex, and a stimulus in the right visual hemifield is processed in the left visual cortex.

right and left hemifields overlap at and slightly beyond the central fixation point

175
Q

parvo pathway

A

good at spatial resolution (boundaries and
shape—high levels of details), and color. But poor temporal (can’t detect motion—only stationary.)

  • Cones responsible
    § Acronym: Pink Pyramid (a type of “form”/”shape”)

travels from the retina to the ventral (lower) layers of the LGN, then to the V1, and eventually to the ventral brain regions. This pathway, known as the “what” pathway, is responsible for the perception of finer detail, such as form and color.

176
Q

magno pathway

A

has high temporal resolution (think time, motion) resolution [encodes motion]. But has poor spatial resolution; no color). Rods responsible.

Acronym: Motion = Magnocellular pathway

travels from the retina to the dorsal (upper) layers of the LGN, then to the V1, and eventually to the dorsal brain regions. This pathway, known as the “where” pathway, is responsible for the perception of coarser detail, such as depth and motion.

177
Q

case studies

A

used to study one or a few individuals who possess a trait or condition of interest, such as a genetic mutation causing four distinct cone types.

178
Q

A randomized controlled trial

A

an experimental study in which participants are randomly allocated to two or more experimental groups that receive different treatments or exposures.

179
Q

Implicit memory

A

memory stored without effort or awareness. The main type of implicit memory is procedural memory, or memory of how to do things (eg, ride a bicycle, tie a shoe)

180
Q

Working memory

A

is the sensory information you actually process. Consists of what you are thinking about at the moment. Capacity is Magic number 7 (working memory can hold 7 +/- 2 pieces of info at a time– phone #s 7 digits long). Does vary based on how complicated the stimuli are, how old you are.

Different components to process input. Working memory is memory that is stored while it is held in attention.

181
Q

episodic buffer

A

Connector for info to be held in long term memory

responsible for temporal processing (understanding the timeline of events) and integrating information from long-term memory into working memory (eg, remembering how to multiply when figuring out a tip at a restaurant).

182
Q

phonological loop

A

gives us the ability to temporarily hold spoken or written information in our memory through repetition

183
Q

phi phenomenon

A

(also known as the motion picture effect) is an optical illusion in which a series of still photographs presented in rapid succession appear to be moving.

184
Q

Multitasking

A

impacted by task similarity, difficulty, and practice.

185
Q

Social identity

A

describes how one’s self-concept (ideas and beliefs about the self) is shaped by group membership. The major social identities are sex/gender, sexuality, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, family status (eg, married, parent), and occupation. Social identities define individuals in relation to others and allow for social groupings.

186
Q

Dyadic relationships

A

characterize the interaction between the two people

187
Q

Manifest functions

A

the intended consequences of a social structure. For example, the media (a social structure) is meant to disseminate information.

188
Q

Group identification

A

refers to the extent to which an individual perceives himself or herself as a member of a larger collective.

189
Q

Rational choice/social exchange

A

individual behaviors and interactions attempt to increase personal gain and decrease personal loss

190
Q

analogous

A

comparable

191
Q

computerized tomography (CT) scan

A

uses x-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain and is most useful for providing images of detailed structures.

192
Q

electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

measures electrical brain activity through the use of electrodes attached to the scalp. An EEG can provide some information about brain activity, but it cannot localize activity to a specific brain area

193
Q

Positron emission tomography (PET)

A

a functional neuroimaging technique that measures physiological activity in the brain. It uses a radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog to measure which areas of the brain are metabolically active (using glucose more rapidly) during specific tasks.

194
Q

Popular culture

A

refers to ideas, attitudes, and behaviors that are widespread in society. Popular culture reflects the beliefs and behaviors of the masses, whereas high culture is relevant to only a small fraction (eg, those who are wealthy and/or educated).

195
Q

Self-serving bias

A

occurs when success is credited to internal factors but failure is blamed on external factors. For example, a good grade is attributed to being smart (internal), whereas a bad grade is attributed to the questions being unfair (external).

196
Q

Actor-observer bias

A

occurs when an individual is more likely to blame his or her own bad behavior on external circumstances. For example, an individual may cut someone off in traffic, but would excuse their behavior due to running late.

blame our own actions on external situations but the actions of others on personality

197
Q

Sublimation

A

transforming unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to acceptable thoughts behaviors (taking up boxing to vent anger)

198
Q

Somatic Symptom Disorder

A

extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms

199
Q

Conversion disorder

A

“neurological symptoms” that cannot be explained by a medical condition

200
Q

Factitious disorder

A

faking illness for external gain like disability benefits

201
Q

expectancy theory of motivation

A

Expectancy is the belief that one will be able to achieve the desired outcome.

Instrumentality is the belief that one has control over the desired outcome.

Valence involves the value placed on the desired outcome.

202
Q

Maslows Hierarchy

A

Basic needs include physiological needs and safety needs. Physiological needs are the basic elements necessary for survival, such as sleep, water, food, and air.

Safety needs involve protection from danger, a sense of security, law and order, and freedom from fear.

Love; belonging and acceptance from social groups

Esteem needs involve the desire to feel accomplished and productive within a society. These involve the need for feelings of achievement, independence, and respect.

Self-actualization needs involve a desire to seek personal experiences that allow one to reach full potential.

Maslow believed everyone could attain self actualization, but progress would be thwarted by failure to attain lower needs.
“Please Stop Liking Stupid (Esteem) Shit”

203
Q

Reaction formation

A

acting in a manner opposite to how you truly feel

204
Q

Displacement

A

Taking out unacceptable thoughts/feelings on a safe target (punching a pillow)

205
Q

MEG

A

Helmet-like device placed over the head

Magnetic fields produced by electrical brain activity

206
Q

EEG

A

Electrodes placed on the scalp & connected to an amplifier

Electrical signals of the cortex below the skull

207
Q

Thomas theorem

A

predicts that an individual’s response or reaction to a situation is the result of her interpretation of the situation. In other words, our actions are based on our perception of reality.

208
Q

The Yerkes-Dodson law

A

suggests that there is an optimal level of physiological or mental arousal at which performance is maximized; performance will decline with too little or too much arousal.

209
Q

The Hawthorne effect

A

describes experimental subjects modifying their behavior or responses because they know they are being observed.

210
Q

CBT

A

change negative thoughts and maladaptive behaviors by reframing how one thinks

211
Q

humanistic therapy

A

move towards self actualization through unconditional positive regard and empathy

The focus of humanistic psychology is on the healthy development of personality; this framework ascribes free will to people rather than focusing on the constraints of early relationships like Freud.

by Carl Rodgers

212
Q

Trait theory

A

suggests that personality is the result of a combination of traits that are relatively stable over time. Trait theory does not account for external influences on personality or for the reasons underlying personality traits.

213
Q

Semantic Memory

A

Specific knowledge/concepts

214
Q

aqueous humour

A

maintains the convex shape of the cornea

215
Q

vitreous humour

A

supports the lens and maintains the shape of the entire eye

216
Q

myopia

A

nearsightedness

occurs when an eyeball is elongated; images in the distance appear blurry

217
Q

Presbyopia

A

occurs because the image focuses behind the retina due to loss of elasticity in the lens; similar to hyperopia (farsightedness)

218
Q

Thalamus

A

MEMORY!

sensory relay station, everything you hear/taste/etc. Senses come through your nerves and end up in thalamus, which directs them to appropriate areas in cortex, and other areas of the brain. Emotions contingent on senses. Smell is only one that bypasses the thalamus – goes to areas closer to amygdala.

219
Q

cerebral cortex

A

Can be split up by hemispheres
positive emotions evoke activity on left side

negative emotions evoke activity on right side

220
Q

Otolithic Organs

A

(utricle and saccule) help to detect linear acceleration and head positioning

CaCO3 crystals attached to hair cells in viscous gel, they move with head movement due to gravity

can contribute to dizziness and vertigo

221
Q

Endolymph

A

Fluid inside inner ear’s labyrinth; convey sound, position, and balance to CNS

we get dizzy after spinning because endolymph doesn’t stop spinning when we do

222
Q

Transduction

A

occurs whenever energy is transformed from one form to another

ex. light energy transformed to electrical energy by rods/cones

223
Q

Light entering eye path

A

Light comes in, goes through pupil, and hits rod. Normally rod is turned on, but when light hits turns off.

When rod is off, it turns on a bipolar cell, which turns on a retinal ganglion cell, which goes into the optic nerve and enters the brain.

224
Q

What happens in the eye when its dark?

A

When dark, ROD turned on, ON CENTER bipolar cells inactive, OFF CENTER bipolar cells active.

  • When OFF CENTER bipolar cells turned on, this activates OFF CENTER retinal ganglion cell, which sends signal to optic nerve to brain.
225
Q

What happens in the eye when the light hits the rod?

A

When light hits ROD, turned off ON CENTER bipolar cells active, OFF CENTER bipolar cells inactive.

  • When ON CENTER bipolar cells turned on, this activates ON CENTER retinal ganglion cell, which sends signal to optic nerve to brain.
226
Q

Types of vision

A
  • Photopic vision occurs at levels of high light levels.
  • Mesopic vision occurs at dawn or dusk and involves both rods and cones.
  • Scotopic vision occurs at levels of very low light.
227
Q

Differences between rods and cones

A

more rods than cones

rods more sensitive

cones in fovea

rods have slow recovery; cones have fast

228
Q

for audition, need…

A

pressurized sound wave (stimuli)

hair cell (receptor, located in cochlea)

229
Q

sound pathway

A
  1. pinna (outer part of ear)
  2. the auditory canal (external auditory meatus)
  3. tympanic membrane (eardrum)
    when pressurized wave hits eardrum, vibrates back and forth, these three bones (called ossicles) vibrate in this order:
    - malleus (hammer)
    - incus (anvil)
    - stapes (stirrup)
  4. stapes is attached to oval window (elliptical window); vibrates back and forth
  5. as oval window vibrates, pushes fluid in/around cochlea (round structure lined with hair cells)
  6. at tip of cochlea, fluid will go back to the round window (circular window) and get pushed out
  7. will not go back go oval window because there is a membrane– the organ of Corti (has basilar membrane/tectorial membrane)
  8. hair cells move back and forth in cochlea; electrical impulse transported by auditory nerve to the brain

process of fluid going around the cochlea occurs until the energy of the sound wave dissipates

230
Q

External Ear

A

from pinna to tympanic membrane

231
Q

Middle ear

A

three ossicles (from malleus to stapes)

232
Q

inner ear

A

cochlea and semicircular canals

233
Q

Psychoanalytic theory

A

personality is composed of the id (pleasure principle)

the ego (reality principle)

the superego (morality/perfection principle).

The rational ego functions to mediate between external reality and the unconscious self, negotiating the desires of the primitive, impulsive id and the moralistic superego.

the ego mediates between the id (base desires) and the superego (moral impulses).

234
Q

Content validity

A

reflects whether an assessment comprehensively measures the construct it is supposed to measure.

235
Q

Self-handicapping

A

the process of developing (anticipating failure) behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize personal responsibility for the failure.

236
Q

Mead

A

Mead proposed two versions of the self: the “me” and the “I.” The “me” is the attitudes, roles, meanings, pressures, and values of society and others around the individual that are organized into one’s social self through role-taking.

The “I” is the part of the self that can be identified with desires, freedom, and creativity.

Essentially, the “me” is the social self and the “I” is one’s response to the “me.” Through socialization, individuals learn to look at the world through others’ perspectives.

237
Q

The autonomic nervous system

A

controls unconscious physiological responses, which precede emotional response under the James-Lange theory.

238
Q

Echoic memory

A

pertains only to auditory info

239
Q

Narcissistic personality disorder

A

when patients have an inflated sense of their own importance and a deep craving for admiration. The inflated sense of importance implies that patients have a disconnect with reality. Narcissistic personality disorder deals with who patients think they already are their self-concept.

240
Q

Antisocial personality disorder

A

patients may exhibit deliberate sadism

241
Q

prescriptive/descriptive

A

prescriptive refers to what an individual believes should occur

descriptive refers to what one perceives as actually occurring.

242
Q

inductive/deductive

A

Inductive reasoning extrapolates from individual observations to general principles

deductive reasoning is the opposite.

243
Q

Transference

A

the inappropriate transferring of feelings about one relationship to another. The classic example is a patient transferring childhood feelings about a parent onto their therapist.

244
Q

World Systems Theory

A

Core countries are those well-developed, wealthy nations that control many resources, have powerful militaries, and have strong state institutions.

Semi-periphery countries share characteristics of core and periphery countries.

Periphery countries are dependent on core countries for capital and lack a strong centralized government.

245
Q

primacy effect

A

a phenomenon in which information that is presented first has a disproportionate influence on your perception of a person

recency effect= more recent/easier to remember

246
Q

Personal constructs

A

beliefs about which attributes are most important in making judgments about people.

247
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

occurs when we make decisions based on what we consider to be the prototypical example of a category.

248
Q

Eidetic Memory

A

photographic memory

249
Q

Social facilitation

A

the tendency that people have to perform simple tasks better or more efficiently when in the presence of other people

this relates to Yerkes Dodson law

Social inhibition occurs when the presence of an audience hinders performance

250
Q

A within-subjects design

A

occurs when all participants are exposed to every condition in a study.

251
Q

primary social group

A

stable, lifelong relationsihps

252
Q

The looking-glass self

A

an individual’s representation of himself that is based on how others view that individual.

253
Q

Stress

A

first response is physiological and caused by stimulation of sympathetic nervous system (which releases epinephrine and norepinephrine)

second response is cognitive and initiates when the hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) which stimulates pituitary gland to produce adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which stimulates the release of cortisol from adrenal glands

254
Q

Cortisol

A

helps body maintain continuous supply of blood sugar needed to sustain stress response by up-regulating gluconeogenesis and mobilizing free fatty acids and amino acids to be metabolized – when more glucose is available, brain can function during times of stress
too much cortisol release can impact white blood cells and make immune system weak

255
Q

A phenomenological research

A

focuses on subjective elements of an experience by trying to understand individuals’ perceptions, perspectives, and understanding of a particular situation or event. Often, this is done by way of collecting narratives from multiple subjects regarding the same situation or experience, in order to make generalizations about the research topic.

256
Q

Observational studies

A

draw inferences from a sample regarding the effects of an independent variable on a population; however, the independent variable is not specifically manipulated by the researcher, and is instead often pre-existing within the sample of interest. Common examples of observational studies include case-control, cross-sectional, longitudinal, cohort and ecological studies.

257
Q

Gender terms

A

Gender schema - what makes someone categorized into a male or female

Gender script - what is expected of that person once they are gendered

Gender role - acceptable normative behaviors for a gender

258
Q

Self Terms

A

Self-schemata refers to an individual’s understanding of their present self.

Self-esteem is an overarching evaluation of one’s self-worth and self-efficacy is a self-assessment centered on an individual’s ability to perform a specific task or set of tasks.

259
Q

Dichotomous variables

A

only have two categories.

260
Q

Ordinal variables

A

can be ranked to allow for comparisons. For example, if you were asked about the highest level of education achieved, you could respond with high school degree, college degree, medical degree, etc.

261
Q

Continuous variables

A

have an infinite number of categories. If the question was something like “how many full-time jobs have you had?” or “how many hours do you work each week?”, there would be more than two categories for responses, and employment status would be a continuous variable.

262
Q

Catatonia

A

a neuropsychiatric syndrome characterized by abnormal movements, behaviors, and withdrawal

263
Q

Avolition

A

a lack of interest in goal-directed behavior.

264
Q

Alogia

A

the inability to speak

265
Q

Personality disorder

A

an illness marked by an ongoing pattern of varying moods, self-image, and behavior.

266
Q

A mood disorder

A

a class of mental health conditions that describes all types of depression and bipolar disorders.

267
Q

classical conditioning

A

classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus and the subsequent unconditioned response to it are used to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus, which causes a conditioned response. The best-known example is Pavlov’s experiment on dogs.

268
Q

operant conditioning

A

uses reinforcement to encourage a behavior and punishment to discourage it

269
Q

Types of reinforcement in operant conditioning

A

A fixed-ratio schedule is when the behavior is reinforced after a specific number of responses. For example, a rat gets a treat every third push of a lever.

Variable-ratio schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, number of responses. For example, a rat treat dispenser could be set to dispense a treat after an average of 1 out of every 10 presses, but the exact number of presses between rewards will vary

Fixed-interval schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after a specific amount of time has passed. An example would be semi-monthly paydays.

Variable-interval schedules occur when behavior is reinforced after an average, but unpredictable, amount of time has passed.

270
Q

continuous reinforcement schedule

A

defined as one reward per response.

271
Q

Shadowing

A

an experimental technique used to investigate the ability to attend to and learn information in the presence of distractions.

In a shadowing task you are wearing headphones and they have two different sounds in each. Left ear hear one thing, right ear another thing. Told to repeat everything said in one ear and ignore the other. Focus on one ear and ignore the other (selective attention).

272
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

an intense feeling of discomfort that comes about when you act in a way that is different from what you believe.

273
Q

Bandura

A

Bobo the doll experiment pertaining to social cognitive learning; kids see adults beating up doll, some mimic behavior, others don’t

Attention, Memory, Imitation, Motivation.

he believed all the previous theories are correct to an extent and that we learn both from doing and from observing. That’s not to say that if we see something that we will learn it, but instead that we learn what we want to learn

274
Q

Zimbardo

A

Stanford prison experiment–

Purpose: how conformity/obedience can result in acts different from usual (on their own) or even contrary to how they think they would act. The answer is complicated (not only bad people do bad things). In certain situations can make otherwise ordinary people behave in strange ways.

Goal: How social norms/conventions can influence behaviors of participants playing the roles of prisoners/guards.

275
Q

A confounding variable

A

can change the way the results are interpreted

276
Q

Impression management

A

closely related to the dramaturgical approach, is the process by which individuals attempt to influence the perceptions of observers by controlling what information they present to others during social interactions.

277
Q

Dramaturgical Approach/ Theory:

A

Concepts of front stage self, back stage self,
impression management, and communication are all relevant to the dramaturgical approach to social interactions. Dramaturgy uses the metaphor of theater to understand social interactions. When interacting, people are assumed to act in accordance with the expectations of their audience.

Studied by Goffman

278
Q

elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

A

a theory that describes the ways in which persuasive information may be processed.

Under the central route, persuasion will likely result from a person’s careful consideration of the merits of persuasive information.

Under the peripheral route, persuasion results from a person’s association with positive or negative cues, such as the attractiveness of the message source and its related presentation.

279
Q

Mores/taboos

A

Mores and taboos are unwritten rules in a society about what is considered right and wrong about important issues (e.g. the incest taboo). Mores and taboos are very similar concepts, though taboos can be considered more stringent societal norms.

280
Q

schema

A

knowledge structures that determine one’s expectations in different contexts, including social interactions

281
Q

heuristic

A

cognitive rules of thumb that offer shortcuts to reasoning and problem solving.

282
Q

parietal lobe function

A

the integration of sensory information

283
Q

Central Processing

A

Characterized by interest in the topic, processing of info, and lasting knowledge
(part of elaboration likelihood model)

284
Q

Peripheral Processing

A

Characterized by low interest, focus on superficial aspects, and temporarily impacts listener
(part of elaboration likelihood model)

285
Q

reciprocal determinism

A

states that the interaction between a person’s behaviours, personal factors (motivation/cognition), and environment are all determined by one another

286
Q

Perceptual constancy

A

refers to the tendency to experience a stable perception even as the sensory input itself is changing

287
Q

Differential association theory

A

focuses on how an individual might learn behaviors, that are considered as deviant in larger society, from their close social environment.

288
Q

Labeling theory

A

specifically focuses on how deviant behaviors in the past have long-term stigmatizing impacts on individuals.

289
Q

functional fixedness

A

a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used

290
Q

Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement

A

Continuous reinforcement refers to reinforcing every response emitted by an individual. Continuous reinforcement is associated with a fast rate of acquisition, but quicker extinction.

Partial reinforcement occurs when only some of the responses emitted by an individual are reinforced. Partial reinforcement, on the other hand, is associated with slower acquisition and slower extinction.

291
Q

Sensory memory

A

the system of memory which preserves information in its original sensory form, typically only for a fraction of a second.

292
Q

Instinctive drift

A

the interference of innate, species-specific behaviors with continued performance of a learned response.

293
Q

Central route persuasion vs. Peripheral route persuasion

A

the central route utilizes informational content and the quality of arguments to persuade

peripheral route persuasion uses the message characteristics not central to the information and arguments presented, such as emotional appeals

294
Q

Demand characteristics

A

occur if the research design provides cues to the participants regarding the study hypothesis and causes them to respond in a specific manner.

295
Q

Conceptualization

A

refers to the stage in a study where the researcher describes the social dynamics related to a concept.

296
Q

Operationalization

A

refers to how an abstract concept as a variable is observed through different measurements.

297
Q

sick role theory

A

a sick person has the right to be excused from normal responsibilities and to be held blameless for the illness.

A sick person has the obligation to attempt to get well as soon as possible, and to seek and comply with the advice of medical professionals.

298
Q

Borderline personality disorder

A

characterized by instability in mood, sense of self, and relationships. Symptoms may include extreme mood reactivity, fear of abandonment, impulsive or reckless behavior (eg, drug use, unsafe sex), and suicidal or self-harming behavior.

299
Q

Bipolar disorder

A

characterized by mania: An elevated or irritable mood, feelings of grandiosity, reduced need for sleep, flight of ideas (rapid thoughts), and risky behaviors. Most people also experience depressive episodes: Feelings of sadness/hopelessness, lack of interest in activities, sleep disturbances, and thoughts of death or suicide.

300
Q

illness experience

A

discusses how chronically ill individuals make sense of and manage their illness in daily life and what effect illness has on their sense of self-identity. Chronically ill individuals employ strategies that involve illness work (eg, taking medications), everyday work (eg, maintaining a household), and biographical work (eg, explaining the illness to others) to cope with and make sense of their illness.

301
Q

Racialization

A

the process by which one group designates another group with a racial identity, often based on shared group qualities like physical attributes or behaviors (eg, religious practices). The designating group has more social power (dominant group) and exerts social control over the designated group, which has less social power (subordinate group).

302
Q

Cultural transmission

A

passing of cultural information (eg, behaviors, beliefs, objects) from one generation to the next

303
Q

Class/False consciousness

A

Class consciousness is the recognition of class structure and identification with one’s own social status. False consciousness refers to individuals from lower classes adopting misleading messages from the upper class.

304
Q

dishabituation

A

A renewed response to a previously habituated stimulus (eg, after taking off the sweater & then putting it back on, it feels scratchy again)

305
Q

Encoding

A

involves the transfer of information into long-term memory. Information that is attended to and processed more deeply tends to be remembered better.

306
Q

Associative learning

A

the linking of two events or stimuli. For example, in operant conditioning, a behavior is associated with a consequence (ie, reinforcement or punishment).

307
Q

elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

A

describes a message’s persuasiveness based on how deeply or superficially it is processed and the characteristics of the audience (eg, motivation).

308
Q

universalism

A

cognition controls language

309
Q

piagetism

A

cognition influences language

310
Q

Broca area

A

located in the frontal lobe, is responsible primarily for speech production, including the motor control of the mouth that is necessary for fluent language production.

311
Q

Wernicke area

A

the brain region responsible for language comprehension (understanding both written and auditory language input)

312
Q

Strain theory

A

predicts that individuals experience tension (strain) when there is a disconnect between goals and the available means for achieving those goals. For example, a parent who is unable to feed her child (goal) because there is not enough food (lack of means) experiences strain.

313
Q

Mental set

A

when a problem solver gets stuck on a method that worked in the past but is not right for the current problem.

314
Q

Functional fixedness

A

prevents a problem solver from conceiving different uses or functions for an object. Using the edge of a coin to tighten a screw is an example of overcoming functional fixedness to solve a problem.

315
Q

Relative deprivation

A

the discontent people experience when they believe they are entitled to something yet are being deprived of it.

316
Q

Push and pull factors

A

help explain human migration patterns. Push factors (eg, unemployment, war) describe why people move away from their native country, and pull factors (eg, education, opportunities for girls) describe why people move to a new country.

317
Q

Fitness composed of…

A

An individual’s inclusive fitness is the sum of its direct fitness (own reproduction) and indirect fitness (cooperative behavior that aids kin).

318
Q

Game theory

A

mathematically evaluates the relative success of particular strategies (behavioral phenotypes) over time.

319
Q

Misinformation effects

A

refer to memory errors (usually errors of commission), in which some information introduced and encoded after the target information is retrieved along with some portions of the target information. In such cases, the subject usually has trouble identifying which retrieved information had been originally encoded and which information was introduced subsequently, a situation known as source confusion.

320
Q

Dual-coding

A

the retrieval advantage of verbal items that are imageable. These items are encoded with both a verbal code and a visual code, so they are easier to remember

321
Q

A state dependency effect

A

the benefit of matching the conditions when info is encoded into memory and the conditions when trying to retrieve the info

322
Q

Spreading activation

A

when the representation of a concept is activated in memory, the activation spreads to concepts that are semantically or associatively related to it

relates storage of memory to activation of a series of nodes ; when a node in the semantic network is activated (eg, viewing a picture of a toy fire engine), nodes directly connected to that node (eg, firefighter, alarm) are activated as well

323
Q

Source monitoring

A

refers to a subject’s ability to retrieve the details of the situation extant when memory items were encoded.

More specifically, when some additional information is introduced after the original encoding, this post-event information can be mistakenly included in recall of the original event, leading to a misinformation effect.

324
Q

Classical conditioning is related to which approach?

A

behaviorist

325
Q

Positive punishment

A

Positive punishment refers to the decrease in the frequency of a response resulting from the introduction of an aversive stimulus following that response

example: a woman who has bad panic attacks stops attending meetings
+ panic attacks (bad stimulus) - meetings

326
Q

reticular formation (RF)

A

deep in the brainstem; concerned with functions involving arousal, particularly the sleep-wake cycle, and attention.

327
Q

Chemically gated ion channels

A

require the binding of a molecule to the ion channel, causing it to open. This is observed during olfaction and gustation

328
Q

Sound controlling channels

A

Sound wave-induced vibration of hair cells generates tension within the cell membrane that directly activate ion channels responsible for auditory signaling. This type of ion channel is a mechanically-gated channel, such that upon its activation, it generates a depolarizing current within the cell.

329
Q

What process is happening in a study involving administering a drop of lemon juice to the participant’s tongue and measuring the level of salivation. As more trials are conducted, the researcher finds that the magnitude of salivation declines. After a certain point, the researcher switches to administering lime juice.

A

habituation and dishabituation; The study involves reduced responding to a repeating stimulus, which is best described as habituation. The researcher then changes the stimulus, which will likely lead to dishabituation.

330
Q

electrical conductivity of the skin is a physiological indication of…

A

increased sympathetic arousal

331
Q

Social reproduction

A

refers to the perpetuation of inequality through social institutions.

332
Q

If risk averse individuals come together to complete an assessment on risk, what is likely to happen?

A

due to group polarization, they will all become even more strongly risk averse (attitude becoming more extreme)

333
Q

Short Term Memory Capacity (#)

A

STM capacity lies between 5 and 9 items. George Miller (1956) named this idea the “Magical Number 7 + 2”.

334
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrin multistore memory model

A

states that the initial registration of the information is briefly processed in a form of sensory memory, which is extremely brief in duration.

335
Q

group size and stability

A

larger groups are generally considered more stable but less intimate, whereas smaller groups are usually considered less stable but more intimate.

Dyads, two-person groups, are unstable because either party can break the single social tie.
The triad, three person groups, is considered relatively more stable because of the additional social tie.

336
Q

Ethnography

A

Defined by systematic observation of a complete social environment

337
Q

Escape and Avoidance Learning

A

Escape learning = learning how to terminate an ongoing unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to flee from or stop a continuous electric shock).

Escape learning becomes avoidance learning when preventing coming into contact with an unpleasant stimulus (eg, a dog jumps over a partition to avoid the electric shock before it occurs).

338
Q

serial position effect

A

he selective recall of items presented at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a series or list. The position in which items are presented influences which items are most easily remembered.

339
Q

Primary and secondary reinforcers

A

Primary reinforcers are naturally rewarding (eg, food), whereas secondary reinforcers are conditioned to be desirable

340
Q

token economy

A

uses tokens (eg, gold stars) as secondary reinforcers to encourage certain desired behaviors. Tokens can be exchanged for something the individual wants

341
Q

Habituation

A

a type of nonassociative learning that occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus results in a decreased response.

342
Q

Normative and informational Social influence

A

Normative social influence takes place when people attempt to fit in

informational social influence occurs when people assume others have more information and know what to do

343
Q

Reliability

A

describes the degree to which a measure is consistent (eg, a similar score for a person who takes the same assessment twice).

Reliability also describes the extent to which an experiment is replicable or reproducible (ie, repeating the experiment produces similar results).

344
Q

Culture lag

A

refers to the social problems created by the time delay between rapid changes in material culture (technology, fashion) and slower changes in nonmaterial culture (ideas, beliefs, laws). For example, the Internet has evolved faster than have the laws needed to protect the safety of minors while online.

345
Q

Types of intelligence

A

analytical- involves completing academic problems and problem solving tasks
creative- dealing with novel problems and situations
interpersonal- understanding and interacting with other people
emotional- ability to perceive, assess, manage emotions of oneself/others/groups

346
Q

Behavioral approach

A

positive affirmations/ any reward will reaffirm a behavior. any punishment will decrease a behavior

347
Q

Three major types of kinship

A

consanguineal (genetically related individuals), affinal (individuals related through marriage), and fictive, which describes individuals related through something other than genetics or marriage.

348
Q

Spatial inequality

A

the uneven distribution of wealth and resources across a geographic area. Some of the best examples of spatial inequality are low-income subsidized housing projects.

349
Q

just world phenomenon

A

an attributional bias that occurs when one believes that the world is fair and good things happen to people who are hard-working and good and that bad things happen to people who are bad or lazy.

350
Q

When is sleep walking or talking most likely to occur?

A

During N3 (stage 3; slow wave) sleep

351
Q

What type of waves are present during meditation and hypnosis?

A

Alpha waves

352
Q

Barbiturates

A

used to induce sleep or reduce anxiety (calm them down) Depress your CNS. Anesthesia or anticonvulsant (drugs that reduce seizures)

353
Q

Benzodiazepines

A

the most commonly prescribed suppressant. Subscribed for
same things as barbiturates - sleep aids (to treat insomnia) or anti-anxiety or seizures (anticonvulsant)

354
Q

Where is dopamine produced?

A

ventral tegmental area (VTA), in the midbrain

355
Q

Mesolimbic pathway

A

nucleus accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus are part of the mesolimbic pathway.

356
Q

Dopamine and Serotonin relationship

A

as dopamine goes up, serotonin goes down

357
Q

Divided attention

A

end up switching between tasks when trying to do them simultaneously

358
Q

Exogenous vs. Endogenous (External vs. internal) cues

A

Exogenous /External Cues: Don’t have to tell ourselves to look for them in order for them to capture our attention Ex. Bright colors, loud noises, “pop-out effect”)

Endogenous Cues / Internal Cues - Require internal knowledge to understand the cue and the intention to follow it
Cocktail party effect – ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd. Or when someone calls your name (endogenous cue: meaning of name draws attention)

359
Q

In-attentional blindness – aka Perceptual Blindness

A

we aren’t aware of things not in our visual field when our attention is directed elsewhere in that field. “miss something right in front of you”

360
Q

demographic transition theory

A

addresses changes in the birth rate and the death rate that are associated with economic development (specifically, related to industrialization). The typical pattern begins with a drop in the death rate, leading to population growth, followed by a drop in the birth rate, leading to population stabilization.

MCAT hg (3 decks)

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